Simulated microgravity inhibits the proliferation of K562 erythroleukemia cells but does not result in apoptosis

Astronauts and experimental animals in space develop the anemia of space flight, but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. In this study, the impact of simulated microgravity on proliferation, cell death, cell cycle progress and cytoskeleton of erythroid progenitor-like K562 leukemia cells was observed. K562 cells were cultured in NASA Rotary Cell Culture System (RCCS) that was used to simulate microgravity (at 15 rpm). After culture for 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h, the cell densities cultured in RCCS were only 55.5%, 54.3%, 67.2% and 66.4% of the flask-cultured control cells, respectively. The percentages of trypan blue-stained dead cells and the percentages of apoptotic cells demonstrated no difference between RCCS-cultured cells and flask-cultured cells at every time points (from 12 h to 96 h). Compared with flask-cultured cells, RCCS culture induced an accumulation of cell number at S phase concomitant with a decrease at G0/G1 and G2/M phases at 12 h. But 12 h later (from 24 h to 60 h), the distribution of cell cycle phases in RCCS-cultured cells became no difference compared to flask-cultured cells. Consistent with the changes of cell cycle distribution, the levels of intercellular cyclins in RCCS-cultured cells changed at 12 h, including a decrease in cyclin A, and the increasing in cyclin B, D1 and E, and then (from 24 h to 36 h) began to restore to control levels. After RCCS culture for 12–36 h, the microfilaments showed uneven and clustered distribution, and the microtubules were highly disorganized. These results indicated that RCCS-simulated microgravity could induce a transient inhibition of proliferation, but not result in apoptosis, which could involve in the development of space flight anemia. K562 cells could be a useful model to research the effects of microgravity on differentiation and proliferation of hematopoietic cells.     

Involvement of nitric oxide in the mechanism of biochemical alterations induced by simulated microgravity in Microcystis aeruginosa

Simulated microgravity (SMG) can inhibit proliferation and enhance microcystin production of Microcystis aeruginosa. We investigated the role of nitric oxide (NO) in regulating the SMG induced changes of proliferation, photochemical system II photochemical activity, pigment, soluble protein and microcystin production in M. aeruginosa. M. aeruginosa was exposed to 0.1 mM sodium nitroprusside (SNP, NO donor) or 0.02 mM 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4, 4, 5, 5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (c-PTIO, NO scavenger) alone or in combination with SMG for 48 h. SMG and SNP inhibited the growth of M. aeruginosa while c-PTIO had no effect on cell number. As to yield, the negative effect of SMG was augmented by SNP and suppressed by c-PTIO. The intracellular concentrations of chlorophyll a, carotenoid, phycocyanin, soluble protein and microcystin were increased by SMG after 48 h. The effects of SMG on these metabolic processes could be enhanced by SNP and be partly eliminated by c-PTIO. Moreover, SNP and c-PTIO only functioned in these biochemical processes under SMG, unlike in the regulation of cell proliferation and yield. These results showed that the effects of SMG could be enhanced by adding exogenous NO and be mitigated by scavenging endogenous NO, revealing the involvement of NO in the changes in biochemistry processes induced by SMG in M. aeruginosa.     

Modelling the effects of microgravity on the permeability of air interface respiratory epithelial cell layers

Although it has been suggested that microgravity might affect drug absorption in vivo, drug permeability across epithelial barriers has not yet been investigated in vitro during modelled microgravity. Therefore, a cell culture/diffusion chamber was designed specifically to accommodate epithelial cell layers in a 3D-clinostat and allow epithelial permeability to be measured under microgravity conditions in vitro with minimum alteration to established cell culture techniques. Human respiratory epithelial Calu-3 cell layers were used to model the airway epithelium. Cells grown at an air interface in the diffusion chamber from day 1 or day 5 after seeding on 24-well polyester Transwell cell culture inserts developed a similar transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) to cells cultured in conventional cell culture plates. Confluent Calu-3 layers exposed to modelled microgravity in the 3D-clinostat for up to 48 h maintained their high TER. The permeability of the paracellular marker ¹⁴C-mannitol was unaffected after a 24 h rotation of the cell layers in the 3D-clinostat, but was increased 2-fold after 48 h of modelled microgravity. It was demonstrated that the culture/diffusion chamber developed is suitable for culturing epithelial cell layers and, when subjected to rotation in the 3D-clinostat, will be a valuable in vitro system in which to study the influence of microgravity on epithelial permeability and drug transport.     

Inhibitory effect of simulated microgravity on differentiating preosteoblasts

The bone loss induced by microgravity is partly due to the decrease of mature osteoblasts. In the present study, we employed the random positioning machine (RPM) to simulate microgravity and investigated the acute effects of simulated microgravity on the differentiation of 2T3 preosteoblasts. Following 7 days’ culture under normal (1 g) condition, cells were exposed to simulated microgravity for 24 h. The results showed that 24 h treatment of simulated microgravity significantly decreased alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity without changing the cell morphology. In addition, the mRNA expressions of osteogenic genes, including runt-related gene 2 (Runx2), osterix, osteocalcin (OC), type I collagen (Col I) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), were dramatically downregulated. Moreover, western blot analysis of total extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and phosphorylated Erk (p-Erk) indicated that p-Erk level, which represents the Erk activation status, was increased. Taken together, our results suggested that acute exposure to simulated microgravity inhibited osteoblast differentiation through modulating the expression of osteogenic genes and the Erk activity. These findings provide new insight for bone loss due to microgravity and unloading.     

Evaluation of upper body muscle activity during cardiopulmonary resuscitation performance in simulated microgravity

Performance of efficient single-person cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is vital to maintain cardiac and cerebral perfusion during the 2–4 min it takes for deployment of advanced life support during a space mission. The aim of the present study was to investigate potential differences in upper body muscle activity during CPR performance at terrestrial gravity (+1Gz) and in simulated microgravity (μG). Muscle activity of the triceps brachii, erector spinae, rectus abdominis and pectoralis major was measured via superficial electromyography in 20 healthy male volunteers. Four sets of 30 external chest compressions (ECCs) were performed on a mannequin. Microgravity was simulated using a body suspension device and harness; the Evetts–Russomano (ER) method was adopted for CPR performance in simulated microgravity. Heart rate and perceived exertion via Borg scores were also measured. While a significantly lower depth of ECCs was observed in simulated microgravity, compared with +1Gz, it was still within the target range of 40–50 mm. There was a 7.7% decrease of the mean (±SEM) ECC depth from 48 ± 0.3 mm at +1Gz, to 44.3 ± 0.5 mm during microgravity simulation (p < 0.001). No significant difference in number or rate of compressions was found between the two conditions. Heart rate displayed a significantly larger increase during CPR in simulated microgravity than at +1Gz, the former presenting a mean (±SEM) of 23.6 ± 2.91 bpm and the latter, 76.6 ± 3.8 bpm (p < 0.001). Borg scores were 70% higher post-microgravity compressions (17 ± 1) than post +1Gz compressions (10 ± 1) (p < 0.001). Intermuscular comparisons showed the triceps brachii to have significantly lower muscle activity than each of the other three tested muscles, in both +1Gz and microgravity. As shown by greater Borg scores and heart rate increases, CPR performance in simulated microgravity is more fatiguing than at +1Gz. Nevertheless, no significant difference in muscle activity between conditions was found, a result that is favourable for astronauts, given the inevitable muscular and cardiovascular deconditioning that occurs during space travel.     

In vitro effects of simulated microgravity on Sertoli cell function

With the advent of space flights questions concerning the effects of microgravity (0×G) on human reproductive physiology have received great attention. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of 0×G on Sertoli cells. A Sertoli cell line from mouse testis (42GPA9) was analyzed for cytoskeletal and Sex Hormone Binding Globilin (SHBG) changes by immunohistochemistry, for antioxidant content by RT-PCR and for culture medium lactate concentrations by protein chemistry. Cells were cultured for 6, 24 and 48 h on a three-dimensional Random Positioning Machine (3D-RPM); static controls (1×G) were positioned on the supporting frame. At the end of each experiment, cultured cells were either fixed in paraformaldehyde or lysed and RNA-extracted or used for culture medium lactate measurements as needed. At 0×G, Sertoli cytoskeleton became disorganized, microtubules fragmented and SHBG undetectable already after 24 h, with alterations worsening by 48 h. It was evident that various antioxidant systems appreciably increased during the first 24 h but significantly decreased at 48 h. No changes occurred in the 1×G samples. Initially, 0×G seemed to disturb antioxidant protection strategies allowing the testes to support sperm production, thus generating an aging-like state of oxidative stress. Lactate production at 0×G slightly decreased after 24 h. Further experiments are needed in space to investigate upon steroidogenesis and germ cell differentiation within the testis, to rule out male infertility as a possible consequence, which could be a problem, as life expectancy increases.     

Development of an improved ground-based prototype of space plant-growing facility

Based on a formerly developed ground-based prototype of space plant-growing facility, the development of its improved prototype has been finished, so as to make its operating principle better adapt to the space microgravity environment. According to the developing experience of its first generation prototype and detailed demonstration and design of technique plan, its blueprint design and machining of related components, whole facility installment, debugging and trial operations were all done gradually. Its growing chamber contains a volume of about 0.5 m³ and a growing area of approximate 0.5 m²; the atmospheric environmental parameters in the growing chamber and water content in the growing media were controlled totally and effectively; lighting source is a combination of both red and blue light emitting diodes (LED). The following demonstrating results showed that the entire system design of the prototype is reasonable and its operating principle can nearly meet the requirements of space microgravity environment. Therefore, our plant-growing technique in space was advanced further, which laid an important foundation for next development of the space plant-growing facility and plant-cultivating experimental research in space microgravity condition.     

Simulated microgravity inhibits cell wall regeneration of Penicillium decumbens protoplasts

This work compares cell wall regeneration from protoplasts of the fungus Penicillium decumbens under rotary culture (simulated microgravity) and stationary cultures. Using an optimized lytic enzyme mixture, protoplasts were successfully released with a yield of 5.3 × 10⁵ cells/mL. Under simulated microgravity conditions, the protoplast regeneration efficiency was 33.8%, lower than 44.9% under stationary conditions. Laser scanning confocal microscopy gave direct evidence for reduced formation of polysaccharides under simulated conditions. Scanning electron microscopy showed the delayed process of cell wall regeneration by simulated microgravity. The delayed regeneration of P. decumbens cell wall under simulated microgravity was likely caused by the inhibition of polysaccharide synthesis. This research contributes to the understanding of how gravitational loads affect morphological and physiological processes of fungi.     

Protein expression profile changes in human fibroblasts induced by low dose energetic protons

Extrapolation of known radiation risks to the risks from low dose and low dose-rate exposures of human population, especially prolonged exposures of astronauts in the space radiation environment, relies in part on the mechanistic understanding of radiation induced biological consequences at the molecular level. While some genomic data at the mRNA level are available for cells or animals exposed to radiation, the data at the protein level are still lacking. Here, we studied protein expression profile changes using Panorama antibody microarray chips that contain antibodies to 224 proteins (or their phosphorylated forms) involved in cell signaling that included mostly apoptosis, cytoskeleton, cell cycle and signal transduction. Normal human fibroblasts were cultured until fully confluent and then exposed to 2 cGy of 150 MeV protons at high-dose rate. The proteins were isolated at 2 or 6 h after exposure and labeled with Cy3 for the irradiated cells and with Cy5 for the control samples before loading onto the protein microarray chips. The intensities of the protein spots were analyzed using ScanAlyze software and normalized by the summed fluorescence intensities and the housekeeping proteins. The results showed that low dose protons altered the expression of more than 10% of the proteins listed in the microarray analysis in various protein functional groups. Cell cycle (24%) related proteins were induced by protons and most of them were regulators of G1/S-transition phase. Comparison of the overall protein expression profiles, cell cycle related proteins, cytoskeleton and signal transduction protein groups showed significantly more changes induced by protons compared with other protein functional groups.     

Neuroimmune response and sleep studies after whole body irradiation with high-LET particles

In order to investigate the biological effects of galactic rays on astronaut cerebral functions after space flight, mice were exposed to different heavy ions (HZE) in whole-body conditions at doses comparable to the galactic flux: ¹²C, ¹⁶O and ²⁰Ne (95 MeV/u, at 42–76 mGy). Animals were also exposed to 42 mGy of ⁶⁰Co radiation for comparison with HZE. The neuroimmune response, evaluated by interleukin-1 (IL-1) measurement, showed that this cytokine was produced 3 h after irradiation by ¹⁶O or ⁶⁰Co. In contrast, neither ¹²C (56.7 mGy) nor ²⁰Ne (76 mGy) induced IL-1 production. However, immunohistochemical staining of ¹²C-irradiated mouse brain tissue showed 2 months later a marked inflammatory reaction in the hippocampus and a diffuse response in parenchyma. Sleep studies were realized before and after exposure to 42 mGy of ¹⁶O and 76 mGy of ²⁰Ne: only the ²⁰Ne radiation displayed a small effect. A slight decrease in paradoxical sleep, corresponding to a reduction in the number of episodes of paradoxical sleep, was manifested between 8 and 22 days after exposure. Exposure to ¹²C and ¹⁶O induced no changes either in cellularity of spleen or thymus, or in caspase 3 activity (as much as four months after irradiation). Taken together, these data indicate that the CNS could be sensitive to heavy ions and that responses to HZE impact depend on the nature of the particle, the dose threshold and the time delay to develop biological processes. Differences in responses to different HZE highlight the complex biological phenomena to which astronauts are submitted during space flight.     

A high-performance ground-based prototype of horn-type sequential vegetable production facility for life support system in space

Vegetable cultivation plays a crucial role in dietary supplements and psychosocial benefits of the crew during manned space flight. Here we developed a ground-based prototype of horn-type sequential vegetable production facility, named Horn-type Producer (HTP), which was capable of simulating the microgravity effect and the continuous cultivation of leaf–vegetables on root modules. The growth chamber of the facility had a volume of 0.12 m³, characterized by a three-stage space expansion with plant growth. The planting surface of 0.154 m² was comprised of six ring-shaped root modules with a fibrous ion-exchange resin substrate. Root modules were fastened to a central porous tube supplying water, and moved forward with plant growth. The total illuminated crop area of 0.567 m² was provided by a combination of red and white light emitting diodes on the internal surfaces. In tests with a 24-h photoperiod, the productivity of the HTP at 0.3 kW for lettuce achieved 254.3 g eatable biomass per week. Long-term operation of the HTP did not alter vegetable nutrition composition to any great extent. Furthermore, the efficiency of the HTP, based on the Q-criterion, was 7 × 10⁻⁴ g² m⁻³ J⁻¹. These results show that the HTP exhibited high productivity, stable quality, and good efficiency in the process of planting lettuce, indicative of an interesting design for space vegetable production.     

Signs of Müller cell gliotic response found in the retina of newts exposed to real and simulated microgravity

The effects of real and simulated microgravity on the eye tissue regeneration of newts were investigated. For the first time changes in Müller glial cells in the retina of eyes regenerating after retinal detachment were detected in newts exposed to clinorotation. The cells divided, were hypertrophied, and their processes were thickened. Such changes suggested reactive gliosis and were more significant in animals exposed to rotation when compared with desk-top controls. Later experiments onboard the Russian biosatellite Bion-11 showed similar changes in the retinas that were regenerating in a two-week spaceflight. In the Bion-11 animals, GFAP, the major structural protein of retinal macroglial cells, was found to be upregulated. In a more recent experiment onboard Foton-M3 (2007), GFAP expression in retinas of space-flown, ground control (kept at 1 g), and basal control (sacrificed on launch day) newts was quantified, using microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and digital image analysis. A low level of immunoreactivity was observed in basal controls. In contrast, retinas of space-flown animals showed greater GFAP immunoreactivity associated with both an increased cell number and a higher thickness of intermediate filaments. This, in turn, was accompanied by up-regulation of stress protein (HSP90) and growth factor (FGF2) expressions. It can be postulated that such a response of Müller cells was to mitigate the retinal stress in newts exposed to microgravity. Taken together, the data suggest that the retinal population of macroglial cells could be sensitive to gravity changes and that in space it can react by enhancing its neuroprotective function.     

Personality,social support and affective states during simulated microgravity in healthy women

This study investigated the time-course of stress and recovery states and their relations to social support and personality traits in healthy women during a long-term head-down tilt bed rest. Personality, social support and affective states were assessed in 16 women exposed to simulated microgravity for a 60-day duration involving three stages: a 20-day baseline control period (BDC), a 60-day head-down tilt bed rest (HDT) and a 20-day post-HDT ambulatory recovery period (R+). Participants were divided into two groups: an exercise (Exe, n = 8) and a control group (Ctl, n = 8). All the participants experienced significantly more stress during the HDT period. But exercise did not improve the impaired effects of simulated microgravity. The Exe group perceived more stress and less recovery than the Ctl group during the HDT period. Among the five major personality factors, only Neuroticism was related to both social and affective variables. Neuroticism was positively associated with stress and negatively associated with recovery and social support (S-SSQ). Practical implications in psychological countermeasures for better dealing with the key human factor in spaceflights are discussed.     

Effects of lighting and air movement on temperatures in reproductive organs of plants in a closed plant growth facility

Temperature increases in plant reproductive organs such as anthers and stigmas could cause fertility impediments and thus produce sterile seeds under artificial lighting conditions without adequately controlled environments in closed plant growth facilities. There is a possibility such a situation could occur in Bioregenerative Life Support Systems under microgravity conditions in space because there will be little natural convective or thermal mixing. This study was conducted to determine the temperature of the plant reproductive organs as affected by illumination and air movement under normal gravitational forces on the earth and to make an estimation of the temperature increase in reproductive organs in closed plant growth facilities under microgravity in space. Thermal images of reproductive organs of rice and strawberry were captured using infrared thermography at air temperatures of 10–11 °C. Compared to the air temperature, temperatures of petals, stigmas and anthers of strawberry increased by 24, 22 and 14 °C, respectively, after 5 min of lighting at an irradiance of 160 W m⁻² from incandescent lamps. Temperatures of reproductive organs and leaves of strawberry were significantly higher than those of rice. The temperatures of petals, stigmas, anthers and leaves of strawberry decreased by 13, 12, 13 and 14 °C, respectively, when the air velocity was increased from 0.1 to 1.0 ms⁻¹. These results show that air movement is necessary to reduce the temperatures of plant reproductive organs in plant growth facilities.     

Characterizing parameters of Jatropha curcas cell cultures for microgravity studies

Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) is a tropical perennial species identified as a potential biofuel crop. The oil is of excellent quality and it has been successfully tested as biodiesel and in jet fuel mixes. However, studies on breeding and genetic improvement of jatropha are limited. Space offers a unique environment for experiments aiming at the assessment of mutations and differential gene expression of crops and in vitro cultures of plants are convenient for studies of genetic variation as affected by microgravity. However, before microgravity studies can be successfully performed, pre-flight experiments are necessary to characterize plant material and validate flight hardware environmental conditions. Such preliminary studies set the ground for subsequent spaceflight experiments. The objectives of this study were to compare the in vitro growth of cultures from three explant sources (cotyledon, leaf, and stem sections) of three jatropha accessions (Brazil, India, and Tanzania) outside and inside the petriGAP, a modified group activation pack (GAP) flight hardware to fit petri dishes. In vitro jatropha cell cultures were established in petri dishes containing a modified MS medium and maintained in a plant growth chamber at 25 ± 2 °C in the dark. Parameters evaluated were surface area of the explant tissue (A), fresh weight (FW), and dry weight (DW) for a period of 12 weeks. Growth was observed for cultures from all accessions at week 12, including subsequent plantlet regeneration. For all accessions differences in A, FW and DW were observed for inside vs. outside the PetriGAPs. Growth parameters were affected by accession (genotype), explant type, and environment. The type of explant influenced the type of cell growth and subsequent plantlet regeneration capacity. However, overall cell growth showed no abnormalities. The present study demonstrated that jatropha in vitro cell cultures are suitable for growth inside PetriGAPs for a period of 12 weeks. The parameters evaluated in this study provide the basic ground work and pre-flight assessment needed to justify a model for microgravity studies with jatropha in vitro cell cultures. Future studies should focus on results of experiments performed with jatropha in vitro cultures in microgravity.     

Upregulation of erythropoietin receptor in UT-7/EPO cells inhibits simulated microgravity-induced cell apoptosis

Hematopoietic progenitor cell proliferation can be altered in either spaceflight or under simulated microgravity experiments on the ground, however, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Our previous study showed that exposure of the human erythropoietin (EPO)-dependent leukemia cell line UT-7/EPO to conditions of simulated microgravity significantly inhibited the cellular proliferation rate and induced cell apoptosis. We postulated that the downregulation of the erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) expression in UT-7/EPO cells under simulated microgravity may be a possible reason for microgravity triggered apoptosis. In this paper, a human EPOR gene was transferred into UT-7/EPO cells and the resulting expression of EPOR on the surface of UT-7/EPO cells increased approximately 61% (p < 0.05) as selected by the antibiotic G418. It was also shown through cytometry assays and morphological observations that microgravity-induced apoptosis markedly decreased in these UT-7/EPO–EPOR cells. Thus, we concluded that upregulation of EPOR in UT-7/EPO cells could inhibit the simulated microgravity-induced cell apoptosis in this EPO dependent cell line.     

大鼠后肢去负荷体位调节装置设计与实验研究

通过对大鼠尾吊模型进行改进，研制出一种新型可调节体位的大鼠后肢去负荷悬吊装置，研究模拟微重力效应下体液分布变化对大鼠骨代谢的影响.将36只SD大鼠均分为对照组（CON）、头低位后肢去负荷组（HDT）、水平位后肢去负荷组（HH）和头高位后肢去负荷组（HUT）4组，实验21天后，利用DXA检测大鼠的骨密度（BMD）.模拟微重力效应下的三组大鼠后肢均发生严重骨丢失，其中HH和HUT组后肢BMD显著大于HDT组.实验结果表明，体液分布变化可能在模拟微重力效应导致的骨丢失中起到重要作用，新型大鼠后肢去负荷悬吊装置能够调节大鼠体位（体液）进行模拟微重力效应研究.      

Preliminary results of space experiment: Implications for the effects of space radiation and microgravity on survival and mutation induction in human cells

In view of the concern for the health of astronauts that may one day journey to Mars or the Moon, we investigated the effect that space radiation and microgravity might have on DNA damage and repair. We sent frozen human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells to the International Space Station where they were maintained under frozen conditions during a 134-day mission (14 November 2008 to 28 March 2009) except for an incubation period of 8 days under 1G or μG conditions in a CO₂ incubator. The incubation period started after 100 days during which the cells had been exposed to 54 mSv of space radiation. The incubated cells were then refrozen, returned to Earth, and compared to ground control samples for the determination of the influence of microgravity on cell survival and mutation induction. The results for both varied from experiment to experiment, yielding a large SD, but the μG sample results differed significantly from the 1G sample results for each of 2 experiments, with the mean ratio of μG to 1G being 0.55 for the concentration of viable cells and 0.59 for the fraction of thymidine kinase deficient (TK⁻) mutants. Among the mutants, non-loss of zygosity events (point mutations) were less frequent (31%) after μG incubation than after 1G incubation, which might be explained by the influence of μG on cellular metabolic or physiological function. Additional experiments are needed to clarify the effect of μG interferes on DNA repair.     

One dimensional blood flow in a planetocentric orbit

All life on earth is accustomed to the presence of gravity. When gravity is altered, biological processes can go awry. It is of great importance to ensure safety during a spaceflight. Long term exposure to microgravity can trigger detrimental physiological responses in the human body. Fluid redistribution coupled with fluid loss is one of the effects. In particular, in microgravity blood volume is shifted towards the thorax and head. Sympathetic nervous system-induced vasoconstriction is needed to maintain arterial pressure, while venoconstriction limits venous pooling of blood prevents further reductions in venous return of blood to the heart. In this paper, we modify an existing one dimensional blood flow model with the inclusion of the hydrostatic pressure gradient that further depends on the gravitational field modified by the oblateness and rotation of the Earth. We find that the velocity of the blood flow V_B is inversely proportional to the blood specific volume d, also proportional to the oblateness harmonic coefficient J₂, the angular velocity of the Earth ω_E, and finally proportional to an arbitrary constant c. For c = −0.39073 and ξ_H = −0.5 mmHg, all orbits result to less blood flow velocities than that calculated on the surface of the Earth. From all considered orbits, elliptical polar orbit of eccentricity e = 0.2 exhibit the largest flow velocity V_B = 1.031 m/s, followed by the orbits of inclination i = 45°and 0°. The Earth’s oblateness and its rotation contribute a 0.7% difference to the blood flow velocity.     

Space flight, microgravity, stress, and immune responses.

Exposure of animals and humans to space flight conditions has resulted in numerous alterations in immunological parameters. Decreases in lymphocyte blastogenesis, cytokine production, and natural killer cell activity have all been reported after space flight. Alterations in leukocyte subset distribution have also been reported after flight of humans and animals in space. The relative contribution of microgravity conditions and stress to the observed results has not been established. Antiorthostatic, hypokinetic, hypodynamic, suspension of rodents and chronic head-down tilt bed-rest of humans have been used to model effects of microgravity on immune responses. After use of these models, some effects of space flight on immune responses, such as decreases in cytokine function, were observed, but others, such as alterations in leukocyte subset distribution, were not observed. These results suggest that stresses that occur during space flight could combine with microgravity conditions in inducing the changes seen in immune responses after space flight. The biological/biomedical significance of space flight induced changes in immune parameters remains to be established. Grant Numbers: NCC2-859, NAG2-933.