Observation of the lunar topography by the laser altimeter LALT on board Japanese lunar explorer SELENE

The SELENE Laser Altimeter (LALT) is designed to map the Moon’s topography and will be launched in summer 2007. LALT incorporates Q-switched Cr doped Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm) with an output energy of 100 mJ and 1 Hz repetition frequency for about one year mission period. The laser pulse travels to the Moon’s surface and reflections from the surface are detected by a silicon avalanche photo-diode. The ranging distance is 50–150 km with about 5 m accuracy. Several corrections for accurate ranging data are investigated. The flight hardware has been qualified and passed all the integration tests. A principal goal of the LALT instrument is to obtain a much more detailed lunar topographic map which is superior in global coverage, measurement accuracy and number of data points to previous observations and models. The overall science objectives of LALT are (1) determination of lunar global figure, (2) internal structure and surface processes, (3) exploration of the lunar pole regions, and (4) reduction of lunar occultation data.     

Lunar laser topography by LALT on board the KAGUYA lunar explorer – Operational history,new topographic data,peak height analysis of laser echo pulses

In this paper we review the lunar laser ranging conducted by the laser altimeter (LALT) on board the KAGUYA lunar explorer (2007–2009). Five aspects of LALT measurements are described: (1) General operational history, (2) Laser shot and data statistics, (3) Revisions to LALT topographic data, (4) Variations in laser output energy, and (5) Peak height analysis of laser echo pulses. LALT was able to range to the lunar surface despite some troubles with respect to laser output energy in the middle of the KAGUYA mission. The time series topographic data set was revised (Ver. 2) by incorporating new lunar gravity model based on KAGUYA and other historical lunar satellite’s orbit data, along with other improvements, for example by incorporating the accurate position of the laser collimator on board the KAGUYA; however, more than half of the acquired range data could not be converted properly due to problems with orbit accuracy during the extended phase of the mission. The spherical harmonic coefficients and the basic lunar figure parameters derived from LALT_LGT_TS agree very well with LRO-LOLA and the Chang’E-1 LAM model. It is possible that partial failure to the laser diode was responsible for the gradual degradation of laser power (0.835 mJ per million shots) and the rapid decrease that occurred over April 9–14, 2008. The laser power also proved to be extremely sensitive to the temperature of the laser oscillator. The peak height ratio – that is peak height telemetry data divided by calculated ratio – is about 19% on average using the mean slope and albedo data from LALT and Spectral Profiler on KAGUYA space craft, respectively, which suggests the performance of peak height measurement is more than 1/5 for more than 70 km altitude, if compared with calculated one. The peak height ratio may be better if we take the effect of small scale topography within a footprint into account.     

New results and questions of lunar exploration from SELENE,Chang’E-1, Chandrayaan-1 and LRO/LCROSS

The moon has longstanding questions such as lunar environments, origin, formation and evolution, magnetization of crustal rocks, internal structure and possible life. The recent lunar missions, e.g., SELenological and ENgineering Explorer “KAGUYA” (SELENE), Chang’E-1, Chandrayaan-1, and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter/Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LRO/LCROSS), have provided new opportunities to explore and understand these issues. In this paper, we reviewed and presented the results and findings in the fields of lunar gravity, magnetic field, atmosphere, surface geomorphology and compositional variations, volcano, craters, internal structure, water and life science from new lunar exploration missions. In addition, the new objectives and scientific questions on lunar explorations in near future are presented and discussed.     

中国探月工程

"嫦娥4号"于2019年1月3日成功实现人类航天器首次在月球背面软着陆,"玉兔2号"月球车率先在月背刻上了中国足迹。至今,国际月球探测活动共实施126次,期间出现两个探月高潮。20世纪50—70年代,美苏两个航天大国之间的竞争引起第一轮探月高潮。20世纪末至今,各航天国家意识到月球探测的战略意义,纷纷提出月球探测计划并积极实施,月球成为各国争先探测的热点,掀起第二轮探月热潮。中国自2004年首次绕月探测工程立项实施以来,共开展了"嫦娥1号""嫦娥2号""嫦娥3号""嫦娥4号"及再入返回飞行试验共5次月球探测任务,实现"五战五捷",在空间技术、空间科学与应用、国际合作等方面取得了非凡成就,积累了丰富的经验,后续将继续开展以无人月球科研站为主的月球探测活动。     

太阳电池阵极月轨道在轨热分析

以极月轨道上太阳电池阵作为研究对象,详细分析了该轨道上电池阵所得各外热流的确定方法.以此为基础,对太阳电池阵进行在轨温度数值模拟,得到月球轨道上电池阵所得外热流以及温度的周期分布.计算结果与地球卫星的相应数据进行比较,明确了月球轨道上电池阵所得外热流以及温度的周期分布特点,为月球卫星上太阳电池阵以及整个卫星的设计提供了有利的数据参考.      

嫦娥工程技术发展路线

月球是距离地球最近的天体,以其独特的空间位置、广阔的科学探索前景,成为人类地外天体探测和资源利用的首选目标和持续选择。简要总结世界各主要航天大国的探月发展历程和后续计划,详细介绍了我国探月工程(嫦娥工程)"绕""落""回"三步走的发展思路和技术路线,分析了后续的发展方向,提出了2030年前月球机器人科研站任务设想。     

Introduction to the Payloads and the Initial Observation Results of Chang＇E-1

Chang'E-1,the orbiter circling the moon 200km above the moon surface,is the first Chinese Lunar exploration satellite.The satellite was successfully launched on 24th October 2007.There are 8 kinds of scientific payloads onboard,including the stereo camera,the laser altimeter,the Sagnac-based interferometer image spectrometer,the Gamma ray spectrometer,the X-ray spectrom-eter,the microwave radiometer,the high energy particle detector,the solar wind plasma detector and a supporting payload data management system.Chang'E-1 opened her eyes to look at the moon and took the first batch of lunar pictures after her stereo camera was switched on in 20th November 2007.Henceforth all the instruments are successfully switched on one by one.After a period of parameter adjustment and initial check out,all scientific instruments are now in their normal operating phase.In this paper,the payloads and the initial observation results are introduced.     

Spatial heterogeneity in the radiogenic activity of the lunar interior: Inferences from CHACE and LLRI on Chandrayaan-1

In the past, clues on the potential radiogenic activity of the lunar interior have been obtained from the isotopic composition of noble gases like Argon. Excess Argon (40) relative to Argon (36), as compared to the solar wind composition, is generally ascribed to the radiogenic activity of the lunar interior. Almost all the previous estimates were based on, ‘on-the-spot’ measurements from the landing sites. Relative concentration of the isotopes of ⁴⁰Ar and ³⁶Ar along a meridian by the Chandra’s Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) experiment, on the Moon Impact Probe (MIP) of India’s first mission to Moon, has independently yielded clues on the possible spatial heterogeneity in the radiogenic activity of the lunar interior in addition to providing indicative ‘antiquity’ of the lunar surface along the ground track over the near side of the moon. These results are shown to broadly corroborate the independent topography measurements by the Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) in the main orbiter Chandrayaan-1. The unique combination of these experiments provided high spatial resolution data while indicating the possible close linkages between the lunar interior and the lunar ambience.     

最小数据丢失量的地月中继卫星任务调度研究

月球背面的探测器必须依靠地月中继卫星进行数据传输与通信。地月中继任务包括实时性任务和延迟容忍类任务,如数传任务。当探测器等待传输的数据量超出用户存储容量时,延迟容忍类任务会由于探测器本地存储资源不足和地月中继卫星天线资源受限而无法完成,导致任务数据丢失,所以需要设计一种合理的地月中继任务调度策略,提高地月中继卫星的资源利用率,减少数据的丢失。对地月中继卫星任务调度进行了研究,在分析地月中继卫星数传任务的特点及用户的存储限制的基础上,以最小化数据丢失量为优化目标,建立了地月中继卫星任务调度模型,并设计了一种基于离散烟花算法（DFWA）的地月中继卫星任务调度算法。仿真数据分析表明,基于离散烟花算法的地月中继卫星任务调度算法在求解结果上优于遗传算法,是一种合理、有效的调度方法。     

嫦娥四号任务科学目标和有效载荷配置

嫦娥四号探测器由中继星、着陆器和巡视器组成.其科学目标为:月基低频射电天文观测研究,月球背面巡视区浅层结构探测研究以及月球背面巡视区形貌与矿物组分探测研究.共配置6台有效载荷设备,其中3台载荷设备配置在着陆器上,分别为降落相机、地形地貌相机和低频射电谱仪,其余3台配置在巡视器上,分别为全景相机、测月雷达和红外成像光谱仪.本文主要论述了嫦娥四号任务的科学目标、着陆区概况、有效载荷配置及系统设计、各有效载荷任务和主要技术指标等.      

月球重力转弯软着陆的模糊变结构控制

针对月球软着陆的最终段,提出了以重力转弯方式进行软着陆的模糊变结构制导律.首先设计了次优滑动面,然后引入模糊控制器,使滑动变量逐渐收敛到0,实现安全着陆.考虑了发动机推力偏差、着陆器初始质量估计偏差、月球引力加速度偏差、初始条件干扰、敏感器测量误差及姿态跟踪误差.并用Monte Carlo技术验证了所设计的模糊变结构制导律具有很强的鲁棒性,能够克服各种随机偏差及干扰的影响.因此,所设计的软着陆制导律是可行的,并且只须以斜向距离和斜向速度作为输入,工程实现简单.      

月球表面元素含量的定量分析方法

综合了月球元素定量研究在探测手段和定量方法等方面取得的最新进展。在探测手段方面,介绍了美国最近发射的克莱门汀和月球勘探者探测器使用的多谱段成像仪、中子探测仪以及γ谱仪的主要性能,在定量方法方面,讨论Fe、Ti以及稀土元素等在定量方法上的进展。     

Electrostatic particle collection in vacuum

Lunar grains accumulate charges due to solar-based ionizing radiations, and the repelling action of like-charged particles causes the levitation of lunar dust. The lunar dust deposit on sensitive and costly surfaces of investigative equipment is a serious concern in lunar explorations. Inspired by electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), the Electrostatic Lunar Dust Collector (ELDC) was proposed for collecting already charged lunar dust particles to prevent the lunar dust threat. As the conditions for terrestrial counterparts are not valid in the lunar environment, equations developed for terrestrial devices yield incorrect predictions in lunar application. Hence, a mathematical model was developed for the ELDC operating in vacuum to determine its collection efficiency. The ratios of electrical energy over potential energy, kinetic energy over potential energy and the ratio of ELDC dimensions were identified to be the key dimensionless parameters. Sensitivity analyses of the relevant parameters showed that depending on ELDC orientation, smaller particles would be collected more easily at vertical orientation, whereas larger particles were easier to collect in a horizontal ELDC configuration. In the worst case scenario, the electrostatic field needed to be 10 times stronger in the vertical mode in order to adequately collect larger particles. The collection efficiency was very sensitive to surface potential of lunar dust and it reached the maximum when surface potential was between 30 and 120 V.     

太阳风电子在月表电磁场中的运动

月表磁异常区的分布是月球探测工程的重要内容. 但是由于月表电磁环境错综复 杂, 通常认为月球表面在特殊的空间天气条件下会带有数千伏电压. 以往的空间研究已经证实, 表面的带电与放电容易造成卫星仪器的异常或失联. 月表电场对电子 反射法有重要影响, 研究分析不同电磁条件下太阳风电子的运动轨迹,对月表环境 (电磁环境, 太阳风条件, 等离子体参数等)的研究可以更加深入细致. 通过模拟向月表运动的太阳风电子的运动轨迹, 分析了月表电磁环境的改变对太阳风电子反射 的影响, 并着重研究了月表电场对电子反射法遥感探测月表磁异常的影响, 为探测 月表电磁环境提供了重要的信息.      

Lunar gravity field modeling critical analysis and challenges

This paper summarizes and provides a critical analysis of the historical developments of lunar gravitational models from the earliest use of ground based tracking systems of the Lunar Orbiter to the Lunar Prospector mission. This encompasses a comprehensive and critical analysis of the various methods used in the estimation of the gravity coefficients and the processing of large batches of diverse measurements and data types. It has been shown that weakness exists in the current models of the lunar gravity field, which is primarily due to the lack of far side lunar tracking data information, which makes the lunar potential modeling difficult but expected to be overcome as data from SELENE satellite-to-satellite tracking becomes available. Comparisons of various lunar models reveal an agreement in the low order coefficients of the spherical harmonics. However, substantial differences in the models exist in the higher-order harmonics. A numerical comparison has been presented showing the performance of all the contemporary lunar gravitational models used within the astrodynamics community and available in public domain. Improvements to the current models are part of a continuing process and the recent model improvements and future possibilities in lunar gravity modeling are discussed. A brief review of the recent missions has been presented. It is hoped that this critical review will benefit the researchers by presenting the historical as well as state of the art in this field.     

嫦娥三号巡视器有效载荷

嫦娥三号巡视器配置了全景相机、测月雷达、红外成像光谱仪、粒子激发X射线谱仪四种科学探测有效载荷. 介绍了有效载荷的科学探测任务、系统设计方案和系统组成,描述了各有效载荷的方案设计要点,设计中的主要关注点及主要技术指标等.      

Concept of wireless sensor network for future in-situ exploration of lunar ice using wireless impedance sensor

It is known that a wireless sensor network uses some sort of sensors to detect a physical quantity of interest, in general. The wireless sensor network is a potential tool for exploring the difficult-to-access area on the earth and the concept may be extended to space applications in future. Recently, lunar water has been detected by a few lunar missions using remote sensing techniques. The lunar water is expected to be in the form of ice at very low temperatures of permanently dark regions on the moon. To support the remote observations and also to find out potential ice bearing sites on the moon, in-situ measurement of the lunar ice is essential. However, a rover may not be able to reach the permanently shadowed regions due to terrain irregularity. One possibility to access such areas is to use a wireless sensor network on the lunar surface.     

月球表面粗糙度的分形表征

文中采用"嫦娥一号"卫星探测器返回的激光高程计的数据,从研究月球表面的分形特征出发,选取月球表面的湿海区域进行研究,通过对激光高度计的原始数据进行处理,并利用SPSS统计软件对这两组数据进行拟合得到最佳的拟合模型。结果指出:1)分维可以作为一个独立的表征参量来表征粗糙表面的平缓程度。2)由拟合结果图可知,对于月球表面的湿海区域,分维与粗糙度存在单调递增关系,即分维值越大,区域表面越粗糙,表面起伏变化也越剧烈;并通过分析得出湿海区域的地形起伏较大。3)通过分维值D与粗糙度之间的关系式,对于某区域的任意一段轮廓,可以通过计算分维值D得出该轮廓的粗糙度值。同样的,对任一粗糙度值,可以求出相应的分维值以及该轮廓的具体纬度值位置。4)对于月球表面的其他区域,同样可以得出他们之间的相关性,从而达到研究月表地貌演化过程的目的。     

发动机羽流作用下的实时月尘运动仿真

月尘运动是月球探测器软着陆过程中不可或缺的重要环节,针对发动机羽流作用下月尘运动真实感不强和月尘颗粒运动模型过于简单的问题,提出了一种逼真的实时月尘运动仿真方法.通过计算流体动力学(CFD, Computational Fluid Dynamics)和二次谢别德插值(Quadratic Shepard)方法,分析和计算单个月尘颗粒的运动学模型,得到一定初始条件下粒子运动的二维轨迹曲线;通过分析粒子的数量、初始位置、初始速度、生命周期等参数对粒子运动学的影响和变化规律,抽象出月尘系统的粒子集;建立基于月尘粒子集的月尘运动模型.实验结果显示:该运动模型逼真的模拟了发动机羽流作用下月尘腾起、飞溅、弥漫、消散等运动过程,视觉真实感和实时性能良好,对研究真空环境中的月尘运动及月球软着陆等相关领域具有一定的参考意义.目前该方法已应用于北航虚拟现实国家重点实验室月球软着陆仿真系统.     

Prebiotic synthesis of nucleotides at the Earth orbit in presence of Lunar soil.

Modern studies now favor the fact that extraterrestrial organic molecules served as an important source of biological important substances on the primitive Earth. It is presumed that these space-made organic molecules could be transported safely to the Earth surface being associated with mineral grains. It is important to test whether nucleotides synthesized in Earth orbit could be protected by lunar surface regolite. The phosphorylation of adenosine, uridine and thymidine has been studied with respect of their further transformations and degradation in presence of mineral bed. After retrieval, HPLC analysis is used to identify all the mononucleotides of certain nucleosides. It has been shown, that exposure of the investigated nucleosides as dry films in space conditions in the presence of Lunar soil increases the yield of synthesized nucleotides in 1.1-3.0 times as compared with the exposure of the same samples in absence of Lunar soil. To identify and evaluate the principal source of energy in open space responsible for nucleotide synthesis reaction laboratory experiments were performed. It has been shown, that vacuum ultra violet (VUV 145 nm) radiation promotes nucleotide synthesis more effectively than ultra violet (UV 254 nm) while the presence of Lunar soil increases reaction yield in 1.5-2.0 times. Formation of 5'-mononucleotides seemed to be the most effective reaction both in flight and in laboratory experiments. Protective action of lunar soil on synthesized nucleotides against UV radiation has been shown in open Space conditions.