Proposal of application of same beam VLBI measurements in precision orbit determination of lunar orbiter and return capsule and lunar gravity field simulation in Chang’E-3 mission

High accuracy differenced phase delay can be obtained by observing multiple point frequencies of two spacecraft using the same beam Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) technology. Its contribution in lunar spacecraft precision orbit determination has been performed during the Japanese lunar exploration mission SELENE. In consideration that there will be an orbiter and a return capsule flying around the moon during the Chinese lunar exploration future mission Chang’E-3, the contributions of the same beam VLBI in spacecraft precision orbit determination and lunar gravity field solution have been investigated. Our results show that the accuracy of precision orbit determination can be improved more than one order of magnitude after including the same beam VLBI measurements. There are significant improvements in accuracy of low and medium degree coefficients of lunar gravity field model obtained from combination of two way range and Doppler and the same beam VLBI measurements than the one that only uses two way range and Doppler data, and the accuracy of precision orbit determination can reach meter level.     

The simulation of lunar gravity field recovery from D-VLBI of Chang’E-1 and SELENE lunar orbiters

The lunar gravity field is a foundation to study the lunar interior structure, and to recover the evolution history of the Moon. It is still an open and key topic for lunar science. For above mentioned reasons, it becomes one of the important scientific objectives of recent lunar missions, such as KAGUYA (SELENE) the Japanese lunar mission and Chang’E-1, the Chinese lunar mission. The Chang’E-1 and the SELENE were successfully launched in 2007. It is estimated that these two missions can fly around the Moon longer than 6 months simultaneously. In these two missions, the Chinese new VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) network will be applied for precise orbit determination (POD) by using a differential VLBI (D-VLBI) method during the mission period. The same-beam D-VLBI technique will contribute to recover the lunar gravity field together with other conventional observables, i.e. R&RR (Range and Range Rate) and multi-way Doppler. Taking VLBI tracking conditions into consideration and using the GEODYNII/SOVLE software of GSFC/NASA/USA [8 and 10], we simulated the lunar gravity field recovering ability with and without D-VLBI between the Chang’E-1 and SELENE main satellite. The cases of overlapped flying and tracking period of 30 days, 60 days and 90 days have been analyzed, respectively. The results show that D-VLBI tracking between two lunar satellites can improve the gravity field recovery remarkably. The results and methods introduced in this paper will benefit the actual missions.     

A simulation study for anticipated accuracy of lunar gravity field model by SELENE tracking data

Results of numerical simulations are presented to examine the global gravity field recovery capability of the Japanese lunar exploration project SELENE (SELenological and ENgineering Explorer) which will be launched in 2007. New characteristics of the SELENE lunar gravimetry include 4-way satellite-to-satellite Doppler tracking of main orbiter and differential VLBI tracking of two small free-flier satellites. It is shown that the proposed satellite constellation will provide the first truly global satellite tracking data coverage. The expected results from these data are; (1) drastic reduction in far-side gravity error, (2) estimation of many gravity coefficients by the observation, not by a priori information, and (3) one order of magnitude improvement over existing gravity models for low-degree field.     

火星探测VLBI测定轨技术

我国将于2020年首次发射由环绕器和着陆巡视器组成的火星探测器,火星探测器的跟踪及精密测定轨是完成工程任务和科学探测的基础。火星探测器的跟踪和测定轨,目前主要采用基于地面无线电测量的测距、测速和甚长基线干涉VLBI测角3种手段。主要针对VLBI技术予以介绍,主要内容为:△DOR型VLBI技术在国内外的应用情况、火星探测器VLBI测定轨技术分析、基于同波束VLBI的火星车定位技术、火星探测器VLBI观测等。这些内容对我国的火星探测器测定轨有重要的应用价值。     

Three-dimensional tracking of a lunar satellite with differential Very-Long-Baseline-Interferometry

Lunar gravimetry mission in the Japanese lunar exploration project SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) is characterized by inter-satellite tracking by means of a relay satellite in a high eccentric orbit, combined with differential Very-Long-Baseline-Interferometry (ΔVLBI) and conventional 2-way Doppler tracking. ΔVLBI provides information on the satellite position and velocity complementary to conventional range and range rate measurement, and allows us to measure lunar gravitational accelerations in all the three components. In this article, ΔVLBI and 2-way Doppler numerical simulation results are compared to those obtained from 2-way Doppler observations only, so that we can evaluate the contribution of ΔVLBI to the SELENE lunar gravimetry mission.     

Long-wavelength lunar gravity field recovery from simulated orbit and inter-satellite tracking data

As has been demonstrated recently, inter-satellite Ka-band tracking data collected by the GRAIL (Gravity Recovery And Interior Laboratory) spacecraft have the potential to improve the resolution and accuracy of the lunar gravity field by several orders of magnitude compared to previous models. By means of a series of simulation studies, here we investigate the contribution of inter-satellite ranging for the recovery of the Moon’s gravitational features; the evaluation of results is made against findings from ground-based Doppler tracking. For this purpose we make use of classical dynamic orbit determination, supported by the analysis of satellite-to-satellite tracking observations. This study sheds particularly light on the influence of the angular distance between the two satellites, solar radiation modeling and the co-estimation of the lunar Love number k₂. The quality of the obtained results is assessed by gravity field power spectra, gravity anomalies and precision orbit determination. We expect our simulation results to be supportive for the processing of real GRAIL data.     

Impact of far-side satellite tracking on gravity estimation in the SELENE project

Preliminary results of numerical simulation are presented to examine the gravity estimation capability in the Japanese lunar exploration project SELENE (SELenological and ENgineering Explorer), which will be launched in 2003. One of the new characteristics of the SELENE lunar gravimetry is 4-way satellite-to-satellite Doppler tracking of a low-altitude lunar orbiter by means of a high-altitude relay satellite. It is shown that planned satellites configuration will provide a good far-side data coverage of the lunar orbiter and will improve lunar gravity field as well as far-side selenoid.     

Autonomous navigation for lunar final approach based on gravity gradient measurements

Lunar final approach navigation is critical for pin-point lunar landing in future missions. This study investigates the use of lunar gravity gradient measurements for autonomous navigation of a lunar probe during the final approach phase. As the spacecraft approaches the Moon, the strength of gravity gradient signals improves. A spaceborne gravity gradiometer can precisely measure local gravity gradients, and the latest lunar gravity model GL1500E is used to provide reference values. The employed truncation degree and order of the gravity model are increased stepwise considering the decreasing altitude of the spacecraft in order to reach a compromise between computational costs and model accuracy. An iterative Kalman filter is developed for coupled orbit and attitude estimation using gravity gradient measurements and attitude quaternions obtained from star sensors. A simulated spacecraft with a gradiometer noise level of 0.01 E is considered. Simulation results show that the spacecraft’s position converges rapidly and achieves an accuracy of less than 100 m at the last epoch.     

Chang’E-1 precision orbit determination and lunar gravity field solution

In this paper we present results assessing the role of Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) tracking data through precision orbit determination (POD) during the check-out phase for Chang’E-1, and the lunar gravity field solution CEGM-01 based on the orbital tracking data acquired during the nominal phase of the mission. The POD of Chang’E-1 is performed using S-band two-way Range and Range Rate (R&RR) data, together with VLBI delay and delay rate observations. The role of the VLBI data in the POD of Chang’E-1 is analyzed, and the resulting orbital accuracies are estimated for different solution strategies. The final orbital accuracies proved that the VLBI tracking data can improve the Chang’E-1 POD significantly. Consequently, CEGM-01 based on six-month tracking data during Chang’E-1 nominal mission phase is presented, and the accuracy of the model is assessed by means of the gravity field power spectrum, admittance and coherence between gravity and topography, lunar surface gravity anomaly and POD for both Chang’E-1 and Lunar Prospector (LP). Our analysis indicates that CEGM-01 has significant improvements over a prior model (i.e. GLGM-2), and shows the potential of Chang’E-1 tracking data in high resolution lunar gravity field model solution by combining with SELENE and LP tracking data.     

从日地系统L2出发借力月球飞越近地小行星

对于停留在日地系统L2的“嫦娥2号”探测器,其后续飞行方案有多个选项,例如主动撞月或重返月球轨道、返回地球轨道或再入大气、飞往地月系统L1/L2或日地系统L1、进入深空飞越近地小行星(最终,“嫦娥2号”于2012年12月13日成功地实现了对Toutatis小行星的近距离飞越)。探讨上述的飞行方案需要对飞行轨道进行初步设计,总的速度脉冲限制在100 m/s以内并且需要考虑探测器同时受到太阳、地球、月球的引力作用。本研究设计了探测器从日地系统L2出发借力月球实现Toutatis小行星飞越的飞行方案,与直接飞越方案相比,借力月球可以进一步节省探测器的燃料消耗,其等效速度脉冲设计值为58.47 m/s。     

Night side lunar surface potential in the Earth’s magnetosphere

In the Earth’s magnetotail, Japanese Moon orbiter Kaguya repeatedly encountered the plasmoid or plasma sheet. The encounters were characterized by the low energy ion signatures including lobe cold ions, cold ion acceleration in the plasma sheet-lobe boundaries, and hot plasma sheet ions or fast flowing ions associated with plasmoids. Different from the previous observations made in the magnetotail by the GEOTAIL spacecraft, the ions were affected by the existence of the Moon. On the dayside of the Moon, tailward flowing cold ions and their acceleration were observed. However, on the night side, tailward flowing cold ions could not be observed since the Moon blocked them. In stead, ion acceleration by the spacecraft potential and the electron beam accelerated by the potential difference between lunar surface and spacecraft were simultaneously observed. These electron and ion data enabled us to determine the night side lunar surface potential and spacecraft potential only from the observed data for the first time.     

A simulation of Martian gravity field recovery by using a near equatorial orbiter

An improvement to the Martian gravity field may be achieved by means of future orbiting spacecraft with small eccentricity and low altitude exemplified through a newly proposed mission design that may be tested in upcoming reconnaissance of Mars. Here, the near equatorial orbital character (with an inclination approximating 10°, eccentricity as 0.01 and semi-major axis as 4000 km) is considered, and its contribution to Martian gravity field solution is analyzed by comparing it with a hypothetical polar circular orbiter. The solution models are evaluated in terms of the following viewpoints: power spectra of gravity field coefficients, correlations of low degree zonal coefficients, precise orbit determination, and error distribution of both Mars free air gravity anomaly and areoid. At the same time, the contributions of the near equatorial orbiters in low degree zonal coefficients time variations are also considered. The present results show that the near equatorial orbiter allows us to improve the accuracy of the Martian gravity field solution, decrease correlation of low degree zonal coefficients, retrieve much better time variable information of low degree zonal coefficients, improve precise orbit determination, and provide more accurate Mars free air gravity anomaly and areoid around the equatorial region.     

Optimal station-keeping near Earth–Moon collinear libration points using continuous and impulsive maneuvers

In this study the gravitational perturbations of the Sun and other planets are modeled on the dynamics near the Earth–Moon Lagrange points and optimal continuous and discrete station-keeping maneuvers are found to maintain spacecraft about these points. The most critical perturbation effect near the L₁ and L₂ Lagrange points of the Earth–Moon is the ellipticity of the Moon’s orbit and the Sun’s gravity, respectively. These perturbations deviate the spacecraft from its nominal orbit and have been modeled through a restricted five-body problem (R5BP) formulation compatible with circular restricted three-body problem (CR3BP). The continuous control or impulsive maneuvers can compensate the deviation and keep the spacecraft on the closed orbit about the Lagrange point. The continuous control has been computed using linear quadratic regulator (LQR) and is compared with nonlinear programming (NP). The multiple shooting (MS) has been used for the computation of impulsive maneuvers to keep the trajectory closed and subsequently an optimized MS (OMS) method and multiple impulses optimization (MIO) method have been introduced, which minimize the summation of multiple impulses. In these two methods the spacecraft is allowed to deviate from the nominal orbit; however, the spacecraft trajectory should close itself. In this manner, some closed or nearly closed trajectories around the Earth–Moon Lagrange points are found that need almost zero station-keeping maneuver.     

Improved kHz-SLR tracking techniques and orbit quality analysis for LEO missions

Satellite gravity field missions such as CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE are designed as low Earth orbiting spacecraft (LEO) with orbit heights of about 250–500 km. The challenging mission objectives require a very precise knowledge of the satellite orbit position in space. For these missions precise orbit information is typically provided by GPS satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST) observations supported by satellite laser ranging (SLR).     

VLBI for better gravimetry in SELENE

The Japanese lunar explorer SELENE (SElenological and Engineering Explorer), to be launched in 2007, will for the first time utilize VLBI observations in lunar gravimetry investigations. This will particularly improve the accuracy to which the low degree gravitational harmonics and the gravity field near the limb can be measured, and when combined with Doppler measurements will enable three-dimensional information to be extracted. Differential VLBI Radio sources called VRAD experiment involves two on-board sub-satellites, Rstar and Vstar. These will be observed using differential VLBI to measure the trajectories of the satellites with the Japanese network named VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry) and an international VLBI network.     

基于引力场不对称性的三体系统轨道自主导航

以月球背面的中继通信为背景,提出了基于三体系统引力场不对称特性的星–星测距自主定轨方案。该方案以环月极轨卫星和地–月L2点Halo轨道卫星组成中继通信网,以实现对月球两极和背面的覆盖。通过采集极轨卫星与Halo轨道卫星的测距信息,结合卡尔曼滤波在日–地–月动力学模型下获得两颗卫星的绝对轨道。数值仿真结果表明:本文方法能将导航的位置精度和速度精度分别提高到百米和厘米/秒量级。该自主导航方法还可以扩展到不规则引力场小天体附近星群运动的自主导航。     

Comparison analyses on the 150 × 150 lunar gravity field models by gravity/topography admittance,correlation and precision orbit determination

We analyzed the 150 × 150 lunar gravity field models, LP150Q, GLGM-3 and SGM150, using the power spectrum on the lunar nearside and farside, the lunar global and localized gravity/topography admittance and correlation, and Chang’E-2 precision orbit determination to investigate which model is a more effective tool to estimate geophysical parameters and determine the lunar satellite precision orbit. Results indicate that all gravity field models can be used to estimate the lunar geophysical parameters of the nearside of the Moon. However, SGM150 is better in such computation of the farside. Additionally, SGM150 is shown to be the most useful model for determining the lunar satellite orbit.     

China's Lunar and Deep Space Exploration Program for the Next Decade (2020-2030)

China has carried out four unmanned missions to the Moon since it launched Chang'E-1, the first lunar orbiter in 2007. With the implementation of the Chang'E-5 mission this year, the three phases of the lunar exploration program, namely orbiting, landing and returning, have been completed. In the plan of follow-up unmanned lunar exploration missions, it is planned to establish an experimental lunar research station at the lunar south pole by 2030 through the implementation of several missions, laying a foundation for the establishment of practical lunar research station in the future. China successfully launched its first Mars probe on 23 July 2020, followed in future by an asteroid mission, second Mars mission, and a mission to explore Jupiter and its moons.      

近月空间带电粒子环境——“嫦娥1号”“嫦娥2号”观测结果

“嫦娥1号”（CE-1）、“嫦娥2号”（CE-2）都安装了1台太阳高能粒子探测器（High-energetic ParticlesDetectors,HPD）和2台太阳风离子探测器（Solar Wind Ion Detectors,SWIDs）,进行了月球轨道200 km和100 km空间环境探测,获得了月球轨道空间高能带电粒子（质子、电子和重离子）能谱随时间的演化特征、等离子体与月球相互作用特征以及太阳风离子速度、密度和温度参量。空间环境探测数据分析结果表明：太阳活动低年、空间环境扰动水平相对较低、月球处于太阳风中时,近月空间带电粒子环境的基本特征与行星际空间相比变化不大。CE-1、CE-2在轨运行期间,发现了多起0.1～2 MeV能量电子急剧增加事件,这些事件发生在月球从太阳风运动到磁尾的所有空间区域,其中20%的事件伴随着卫星周围等离子体离子加速。模拟和统计研究表明：能量电子急剧增加使得绕月卫星和月球表面电位大幅下降导致了离子加速现象的发生;能量电子总流量大于10¹¹ cm^-2时,绕月卫星和月球表面充电电位可达负的上千伏。此外,月表溅射与反射太阳风离子、太阳风“拾起”离子等空间环境事件的发现,揭示了太阳风离子和月球存在复杂的相互作用过程。     

The present status of the Japanese Penetrator Mission: LUNAR-A

The scientific objective of the LUNAR-A Japanese Penetrator Mission is to explore the lunar interior by seismic and heat-flow experiments. Two penetrators containing two-component seismometer and heat-flow probes will be deployed from a spacecraft onto the lunar surface, one on the nearside and the other on the farside of the moon. The data obtained by the penetrators will be transmitted to the ground station by way of the LUNAR-A mother spacecraft orbiting at an altitude of about 200 km. The seismic observations are expected to provide key data on the size of the lunar core, as well as data on the deep mantle structure. The heat-flow measurements at two different sites will also provide important data on the thermal structure and bulk concentrations of heat-generating elements in the Moon. These data will provide much stronger geophysical constraints on the origin and evolution of the Moon than has ever been obtained. The LUNAR-A mission was supposed to be launched in 2004. However, a malfunction of spacecraft subsystem and technical issues for penetrator system occurred during the course of the qualification level test. Therefore, further improvements and some modifications were considered to be required for reliability and robustness. The development of the mother spacecraft was temporarily suspended, while we have put a three-year program into effect to solve the penetrator technology issues.