The European Defence Agency and EU military space policy: Whose space odyssey?

This paper analyses the growing involvement of the European Defence Agency (EA) in the field of space, suggesting that this is symptomatic of the greater importance now being placed on military space by the European Union. It charts the history of the agency in general and its role in space in particular, delineating the many synergetic relations it has with other space-related institutions at EU level. It argues that EDA is as much a response to socioeconomic as strategic considerations, and that it acts to protect European competitiveness in the arms field, thereby highlighting the rising significance of EU military space policy for European security and military institutions.     

The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal

Using the global commons for “peaceful purposes” is agreed upon among states in principle but disputed in substance. While non-militarization has been superceded by the doctrine of non-aggression, the latter, as a necessary rather than sufficient condition for “peaceful purposes”, is tested to its limit by the pressing issue of space weaponization. An international treaty to plug the gaps of the Outer Space Treaty should be negotiated. This would require the prohibition of both weapons in outer space and anti-satellite weapons on Earth. The Draft Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects, proposed by Russia and China at the Conference on Disarmament, is an effort in this direction. However, divided views are held on several issues arising from the draft treaty, e.g. the efficiency of the current regime of outer space law, definitions of “weapons in space” and “threat or use of force”, and verification. A primary reason for US opposition to the draft treaty are security concerns over its space assets. However, exercising the right of self-defense is excluded from the obligations of disarmament and this is explicitly affirmed in the draft treaty.     

Forging a closer Europe–Japan strategic partnership: The space dimension

This viewpoint explores how a strengthening of Europe–Japan cooperation in four categories of space-related activities (exploration and access to space; Earth observation and related applications; industry-to-industry cooperation; and space security) can contribute to the EU–Japan strategic partnership more broadly. It is argued that integrating key space portfolios into existing venues and agendas for bilateral consultations and decision-making has the potential to bolster the overarching objective of deepening further political, economic, commercial, societal and cultural relations.     

Motion and transport of solar cosmic rays in heliospheric traps: The event on January 28–31, 2001

The results of studying the enhancement of solar cosmic ray fluxes on January 28?C31, 2001 in a wide energy range are presented using the ACE spacecraft data. A comparative analysis of temporal variations of the fluxes of charged particles and of the interplanetary medium parameters (interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind) has been performed on the basis of the ??reflection?? model of motion, accumulation, and modulation of cosmic rays. It is shown that a magnetic trap for solar cosmic rays was created by a plasma stream and flare ejection from an active region in the western part of the solar disk. Particles of low energies (<10 MeV) were captured inside the trap; the dispersion of distribution of particles with different energies inside the trap being determined by its complicated magnetic structure. The power-low dependence of the time of maximum for the flux of particles on their energy is found, and softer energy spectrum inside the trap is explained.     

Solar and Heliospheric Phenomena in October–November 2003: Causes and Effects

We present new observational data on the phenomena of extremely high activity on the Sun and in the heliosphere that took place in October–November 2003. A large variety of solar and heliospheric parameters give evidence that the interval under consideration is unique over the entire observation time. Based on these data, comparing them with similar situations in the past and using available theoretical concepts, we discuss possible cause-and-effect connections between the processes observed. The paper includes the first results and conclusions derived by the collaboration Solar Extreme Events-2003 organized in Russia for detailed investigations of these events. As a result of our consideration, it is beyond question that the physical causes of solar and heliospheric phenomena in October–November 2003 are not exclusively local and do not belong only to the active regions and solar atmosphere above them. The energy reservoirs and driving forces of these processes have a more global nature. In general, they are hidden from an observer, since ultimately their sources lie in the subphotospheric layers of the Sun, where changes that are fast and difficult to predict can sometimes take place (and indeed they do). Solar flares can serve as sufficiently good tracers of these sudden changes and reconstructions on the Sun, although one can still find other diagnostic indicators among the parameters of magnetic fields, motions of matter, and emission characteristics.     

‘Did you see that,grandpa Mao?’ The prestige and propaganda rationales of the Chinese space program

China has seen a dramatic acceleration in the scope and capabilities of its space program in the past decade. This has been coupled with significantly increased global economic presence and influence as well as a steady improvement of its military capabilities. China's emergence as a major world actor has encouraged the emergence of a ‘China threat’ school of thought which interprets all Chinese policy, including its space program, as an evidence of a threatening challenge to US dominance in which the pursuit of a range of military space capabilities plays a central role. This article challenges that interpretation, arguing that China's space program is the product of a range of factors including powerful domestic political and developmental rationales and that the program is overwhelmingly driven by domestic rather than international considerations, particularly in terms of the use of the program for the purposes of enhancing prestige.     

Variations in rigidity spectrum and anisotropy of cosmic rays during sporadic phenomena in the heliosphere in October–November 2003

The variations in the cosmic ray (CR) anisotropy have been studied by the method of spectrographic global survey in the period from October 1 to November 30, 2003. The data of ground-based observations of CR intensity measured by the world network of stations were used. It is shown that at some instants of the period under investigation a bidirectional anisotropy of large amplitude (tens of percent) is observed in the angular distribution of particles. This indicates, first, a carryover of looplike structures of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) by coronal mass ejections and, second, a high degree of regularity of the IMF in these structures. The maximum amplitude of the bidirectional anisotropy (for particles with a rigidity of 4 GV) was observed on October 29 and 31 (50% and 30%, respectively) and on November 21–24 (15%). Using the data of ground-based and satellite measurements of the CR intensity in the period under study, we have investigated variations of the rigidity spectrum of protons in the energy range from 15 MeV to tens of GeV. The analysis was carried out in the context of the model of CR modulation by regular electromagnetic fields of the heliosphere. Parameters of the model rigidity spectrum of CRs are determined for every hour of observation. Using their values we have estimated the characteristics of electromagnetic fields of the solar corona and heliosphere that were responsible for powerful sporadic phenomena from the end of October to the beginning of November and after November 20, 2003.Translated from Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 42, No. 6, 2004, pp. 645–652.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Dvornikov, Sdobnov, Yudina.     

Ionospheric response to solar flares of C and M classes in January–February 2010

The ionospheric response to solar flares is analyzed for the case of the beginning of solar activity growth, when the background ionization of the ionosphere is still low enough. It is shown that the algorithms and methods of averaging variations and derivative of the total electron content (TEC) over the entire sunlit ionosphere almost always make it possible to identify the ionospheric response even to close in time weak solar flares of the C class. It is found that the response to a solar flare rather intense in the X-ray range can have almost no manifestations, which is caused by the fact that the flare does not reveal itself in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. A map of the TEC derivative over the Japan territory with an average resolution of ～18 km is drawn for the M6.4 flare (February 7, 2010). Before the flare maximum, the TEC derivatives are synchronously increasing over the entire Japan, while after the flare maximum the values of the TEC derivative vary not so synchronously, and local differences are seen.     

Separation of the Galactic Cosmic Rays and Inner Earth Radiation Belt Contributions to the Daily Dose Onboard the International Space Station in 2005–2011

The DB-8 detectors of the ISS radiation monitoring system (RMS) have operated almost continuously onboard the ISS service module since August 2001 till December 2014. The RMS data obtained were used for the daily monitoring of the radiation environment aboard the station. This paper considers the technique of RMS data analysis that allows one to distinguish the contributions of galactic cosmic rays and the Earth’s inner radiation belt to the daily dose based on the dosimetry data obtained as a result of the station’s passage in areas of the highest geomagnetic latitudes. The paper presents the results of an analysis of the dosimetry data based on this technique for 2005–2011, as well as a comparison with similar results the authors obtained previously using the technique based on an analysis of the dosimetry data obtained during station passages in the area of the South Atlantic Anomaly.     

The Tanaka-Enome criterion and solar activity in October–November 2003 as observed by the Large Pulkovo Radio Telescope

We present the results of spectral and polarization observations of two large sunspot groups, NOAA 0484 and NOAA 0486 + 0488, which determine high solar activity in October–November 2003. The observations are made with the Large Pulkovo Radio Telescope (LPRT) in the range 2.7–20 cm, the one-dimensional (E-W) resolution of observations being 1–6 arc min, respectively. The main characteristics of the corona radio emission above these active regions are measured, allowing us to follow their dynamics during the entire period of their existence on the solar disk with a period of one day. The analysis of the obtained results is presented from the point of view of the well-known Tanaka-Enome criterion [1–2] (on the basis of this criterion one can predict strong flares from characteristics of radio emission of an active region in quasi-quiet state). Using the activity in October–November 2003 as an example, we demonstrate the capabilities of a new method for estimating the level of solar activity. It was developed on the basis of long-term observations of the Sun by LPRT [3].Translated from Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 42, No. 6, 2004, pp. 585–594.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Borisevich, Ilin, Korzhavin, Peterova, Topchilo, Shpitalnaya.     

Dynamics of the Radiation Environment in the Near-Earth Space in September–November 2020 according to the Meteor-M and Electro-L Satellite Data

Cosmic Research - The results of a comparative analysis from Russian satellite data on the radiation environment in the near-Earth space during September–November 2020 are presented. The...     

Radial gradient of low-energy (∼0.5–2 MeV) protons at 20–80 AU in the solar activity minima of the 22nd and 23rd cycles

The value of the radial gradient of low-energy (0.5–2 MeV) protons in the heliosphere at distances of 20–80 AU in the periods of solar activity minima in 1985–1987 and 1994–1997 was estimated using the data of the Voyager-1 and Voyager-2 spacecraft (s/c). Preliminary results on the dependence of the radial gradient on the distance were obtained for protons of these energies. The value of the radial gradient varies from –3% (AU)^–1 to –1% (AU)^–1 at distances from the Sun of 20–60 AU, reaching +0.7% (AU)^–1 at maximum considered distances (80 AU). The sign reversal of the proton radial gradient at a distance of 60–70 AU is interpreted as the appearance of a new component: up to the point of inversion there are mainly particles of the solar origin and/or accelerated in the inner heliosphere, while after the reversal of the gradients sign the fluxes of particles prevail whose source is located far from the Sun (maybe in the vicinity of the heliosphere boundary in the region of existence of the termination shock).Translated from Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2005, pp. 3–8.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Logachev, Zeldovich, Surova.     

Influences of H2O mass fraction and chemical kinetics mechanism on the turbulent diffusion combustion of H2–O2 in supersonic flows

Hydrogen is one of the most promising fuels for the airbreathing hypersonic propulsion system, and it attracts an increasing attention of the researchers worldwide. In this study, a typical hydrogen-fueled supersonic combustor was investigated numerically, and the predicted results were compared with the available experimental data in the open literature. Two different chemical reaction mechanisms were employed to evaluate their effects on the combustion of H₂–O₂, namely the two-step and the seven-step mechanisms, and the vitiation effect was analyzed by varying the H₂O mass fraction. The obtained results show that the predicted mole fraction profiles for different components show very good agreement with the available experimental data under the supersonic mixing and combustion conditions, and the chemical reaction mechanism has only a slight impact on the overall performance of the turbulent diffusion combustion. The simple mechanism of H₂–O₂ can be employed to evaluate the performance of the combustor in order to reduce the computational cost. The H₂O flow vitiation makes a great difference to the combustion of H₂–O₂, and there is an optimal H₂O mass fraction existing to enhance the intensity of the turbulent combustion. In the range considered in this paper, its optimal value is 0.15. The initiated location of the reaction appears far away from the bottom wall with the increase of the H₂O mass fraction, and the H₂O flow vitiation quickens the transition from subsonic to supersonic mode at the exit of the combustor.     

Time Variations of Low-Energy Protons and Helium Nuclei (0.3–10 MeV/nucleon) during the Quiescent Time of Solar Activity in the Inner Heliosphere

Time variations with a duration of 0.6–1.5 years are studied in the interplanetary space for protons and helium nuclei with energies of 0.3–10 MeV per nucleon at a quiescent time of solar activity. It is shown that at 1 AU in the periods 1978–1981 and 1988–1990, at the phases of growth of the 21st and 22nd solar cycles, the background fluxes of these particles determined as minimum intensity levels in every month increased demonstrating steplike variations. At the same time, the intensity of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) decreased also with the formation of modulation steps. Each step of low-energy particles was finished by a deep minimum of intensity (gap) in both protons and helium nuclei and with a simultaneous short-term increase of the GCR intensity. We present the results of studying five such steps in the intensity of low-energy particles that were observed simultaneously and were opposite in phase with modulation steps of galactic particles. The lowest values of the H/He ratio were recorded at the end of every step, at the lowest intensities of these particles, i.e., in the gap. The true background population at 1 AU was detected precisely at these time intervals, when the contributions of flare particles and those accelerated in the international space were minimum. Various possibilities of the origination of the steplike variations of the background fluxes of protons and helium nuclei with energies of 0.3–10 MeV per nucleon, correlated with similar GCR variations, are discussed.     

Temperature and moisture conditions for life in the extreme arid region of the Atacama desert: four years of observations including the El Niño of 1997-1998

The Atacama along the Pacific Coast of Chile and Peru is one of the driest and possibly oldest deserts in the world. It represents an extreme habitat for life on Earth and is an analog for life in dry conditions on Mars. We report on four years (September 1994-October 1998) of climate and moisture data from the extreme arid region of the Atacama. Our data are focused on understanding moisture sources and their role in creating suitable environments for photosynthetic microorganisms in the desert surface. The average air temperature was 16.5 degrees C and 16.6 degrees C in 1995 and 1996, respectively. The maximum air temperature recorded was 37.9 degrees C, and the minimum was -5.7 degrees C. Annual average sunlight was 336 and 335 W m(-2) in 1995 and 1996, respectively. Winds averaged a few meters per second, with strong f?hn winds coming from the west exceeding 12 m s(-1). During our 4 years of observation there was only one significant rain event of 2.3 mm, which occurred near midnight local time. We suggest that this event was a rainout of a heavy fog. It is of interest that the strong El Ni?o of 1997-1998 brought heavy rainfall to the deserts of Peru, but did not bring significant rain to the central Atacama in Chile. Dew occurred at our station frequently following high nighttime relative humidity, but is not a significant source of moisture in the soil or under stones. Groundwater also does not contribute to surface moisture. Only the one rain event of 2.3 mm resulted in liquid water in the soil and beneath stones for a total of only 65-85 h over 4 years. The paucity of liquid water under stones is consistent with the apparent absence of hypolithic (under-stone) cyanobacteria, the only known primary producers in such extreme deserts.     

Evaluation of Ir/Al2O3, Ir–Ru/Al2O3 and Ru/Al2O3 catalyst performance in a 5 N satellite thruster

Ir/Al₂O₃, Ir–Ru/Al₂O₃ and Ru/Al₂O₃ catalysts with approximately 33% metallic content in mass were prepared in 20 impregnation steps. For the Ru catalyst, two impregnation methods were employed: incipient wetness (chlorinated precursor) and by excess volume (non-chlorinated precursor). For the remaining catalysts, only incipient wetness impregnation was used with chlorinated precursors. Catalyst textural properties were evaluated before and after catalytic tests: metallic grade, specific area, mesopore volume distribution, metallic dispersion, and metallic particle average diameter. Catalysts were tested for hydrazine (N₂H₄) decomposition reaction in a 5 N satellite thruster and their performances were compared to Shell 405 commercial catalyst. Results showed that catalysts containing Ir were similar in performance to Shell 405 commercial catalyst and that the catalyst containing only Ru should not be used in cold starts.