Life science experiments during the German-Russian MIR '97 mission

Manned spaceflight has been an important element of the German space program over the last decades. This is demonstrated by the nationally managed space missions Spacelab D-l (1985), D-2 (1993), and MIR '92 as well as by the participation in the 1st Spacelab mission FSLP (1983), the NASA missions IML-1 (1992) and IML-2 (1994), as well as in the ESA missions EUROMIR '94 and '95. On February 12th, this year, the German cosmonaut Reinhold Ewald was launched together with his Russian colleagues Wasilij Zibliew and Alexander Lasudkin onboard of a Soyuz spacecraft for another stay of a German cosmonaut onboard of the Russian Space Station MIR. This mission--the so-called German/Russian MIR '97--was, of course, another cornerstone with regard to the cooperation between Russian and German space organizations. The cooperation in the area of manned missions began 1978 with the flight of the German cosmonaut Sigmund Jahn onboard of Salyut 6, at that time a cooperation between the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic in the frame of the Interkosmos Program. In March 1992, it was followed by the flight of Klaus Dietrich Flade with his stay onboard of MIR. After two further successful ESA missions, EUROMIR '94 and '95 with the two German cosmonauts Ulf Merbold and Thomas Reiter and with a marked contribution of German scientists, the decision was taken to perform another German/Russian MIR mission, the so-called MIR '97. In Germany, MIR'97 was managed and performed in a joint effort between several partners. DARA, the German Space Agency, was responsible for the overall program and project management, while DLR, the German Aerospace Research Establishment, was responsible for the cosmonaut training, for medical operations, for the mission control at GSOC in Oberpfaffenhofen as well as for user support.     

Cooperative research in microgravity sciences during the French manned MIR missions

During the past ten years the French laboratories working in the field of fluids and material sciences had access to regular, long-lasting manned missions onboard the Russian MIR Space Station. Beyond the French scientific program that was performed with the ALICE apparatus, a cooperative research program was developed with DLR, NASA and RSA. This cooperation was based on bartered agreements that included the joint utilization of the instruments onboard the MIR station (ALICE, TITUS furnace from DLR, vibration device from RKK Energia) and the funding of dedicated cartridges (DLR) or thermostats (DLR and NASA), as well as launch services (NASA) by the Cooperating Agencies. We present a review of this program with a particular emphasis on its scientific results and on the progress that has been achieved in science and applications. They covered a large field of condensed matter physics, from material sciences to near-critical and off-critical phase separation kinetics and near critical fluid hydrodynamics (thermoacoustic heat transport and vibrational convection). The high microgravity relevance of all these investigations naturally led to outstanding results that was published in the world's best scientific journals. The analysis of the latest experiments performed during the PEGASUS mission shows they will not be an exception to that evaluation. Off-critical phase separation with NASA, pressure-driven piston effect and equiaxed solidification with DLR, heat transport under calibrated vibrations with RKK Energia, all will be presented. The conclusion will stress the international character of this microgravity research program, the conditions of its success and what can be gained from it in the perspective of the space station utilization.     

The benefits and dilemmas of an international space station

Serious recommendations have been made about the development and mutual manning of an international space station. The achievements of ESA show that such international organizations can work successfully in high technology projects, although with problems. However, other work on isolated and confined environments suggests that sustained cooperation in the unique quarters of a space station for long durations may have special inter-cultural difficulties that need to be examined before any long term commitment is made. Also, a careful look at international activities in general suggests that in spite of the fact that there are many potential benefits for cooperative activities, there are also many international obstacles. If such an effort is to be embarked upon, it is important to look candidly at the problems that can be generated from the multi-national social, economic, and cultural systems in order to do serious and direct analyses. Such a project might be strangled by unanticipated and complex problems of a socio-cultural nature.     

Lessons learned from Mir--a payload perspective

Among the principal objectives of the Phase 1 NASA/Mir program were for the United States to gain experience working with an international partner, to gain working experience in long-duration space flight, and to gain working experience in planning for and executing research on a long-duration space platform. The Phase 1 program was to provide the US early experience prior to the construction and operation of the International Space Station (Phase 2 and 3). While it can be argued that Mir and ISS are different platforms and that programmatically Phase 1 and ISS are organized differently, it is also clear that many aspects of operating a long-duration research program are platform independent. This can be demonstrated by a review of lessons learned from Skylab, a US space station program of the mid-1970s, many of which were again “learned” on Mir and are being “learned” on ISS. Among these are optimum crew training strategies, on-orbit crew operations, ground support, medical operations and crew psychological support, and safety certification processes.     

空间站能源系统并网供电技术研究

空间站结构复杂,通常由多个舱段组成,与飞船等飞行器进行交会对接后,各舱段和对接飞行器自有的能源系统可能会由于空间位置及相互遮挡等原因而无法满足自身供电需求,这就需要对舱体电源系统进行并网供电。文章论述了“天宫一号”目标飞行器与“神舟”飞船采用的并网供电方案,通过并联冗余及自动均流控制实现不同舱体间的功率传输;在此基础上,通过调研国外空间站并网供电技术,比较了空间飞行器组合体并网供电中的技术方案及特点,总结了目前空间站并网供电模式可采用的类型,最后提出了我国未来空间站并网供电可采取的方案。     

Ensuring of long operation life of the orbiting station EVA space suit

Russia has gained a lot of experience in operating the space suits (SS) during the extravehicular activities (EVA) by the crews of SALYUT-6, SALYUT-7 and MIR orbiting stations. A total of 21 Orlan-type space suits of various models were operated onboard the orbiting stations (OS) during almost 20 years period. Some of these space suits served up to 3 years in orbit. The paper reviews special features of long SS operation (without return to the Earth) onboard an orbiting station as well as the problems associated with SS repeated use by several crews. An analysis of measures to support solving of the problems of SS long stay and reliable operation onboard the orbiting station is made: selection of a corresponding SS type and separate elements design; selection of the materials; routine and preventive maintenance; development tests. The advantages of the space suit of a semi-rigid type for solving the above problems are shown. The paper includes a short analysis of space suits' operation onboard the Russian orbiting station MIR, and some restuts of inspection of the Orlan-DMA space suit returned to the Earth from orbit by STS-79 alter long operation in orbit. Recommendations on further improvement of the space suits for EVA operations in the International Space Station (ISS) are given.     

PHYSIOLAB: a cardiovascular laboratory

PHYSIOLAB is a cardio-vascular laboratory designed by CNES in cooperation with IMBP, with double scientific and medical goals: -a better understanding of the basic mechanisms involved in blood pressure and heart rate regulation, in order to predict and control the phenomenon of cardio-vascular deconditionning. -a real-time monitoring of cosmonauts during functional tests. Launched to the MIR station in 1996, this laboratory was set up and used for the first time by Claudie Andre-Deshays during the French mission "Cassiopeia". The scientific program is performed pre, post and in-flight to study phenomena related to the transition to microgravity as well as the return to the earth conditions. Particular emphasis was placed on the development of the real-time telemetry to monitor LBNP test. This function was successful during the Cassiopeia mission, providing the medical team at TSOUP (MIR Control Center in Moscow) with efficient means to control the physiological state of the cosmonaut. Based on the results of this first mission, IMBP and CNES will go on using Physiolab with Russian crews. CNES will take advantage of the upcoming French missions on MIR to improve the system, and intends to develop a new laboratory for the International Space Station.     

Return to the Moon: A sustainable strategy

On 14 January 2004 President George Bush announced his vision for space exploration, to include a human return to the Moon. He argued that, with a moderate increase in NASA's annual expenditure, such a return was possible. This paper is an exploration of how the President's space initiative can be realised on an international co-operative basis along similar lines to those already existing with the international space station (ISS). By abandoning the concept of a lunar landing as the major goal of a lunar programme, the initiative is made feasible. The three-stage plan here presented meshes with the currently evolving plans for the US space initiative to provide a realistic, affordable and sustainable strategy for manned lunar exploration. It represents a significant opportunity for the USA to unite and lead the world on this grand, civilisation defining adventure.     

Canada's role on space station

The paper addresses the evolution of the Canadian Space Station Program between 1981 and 2003. Discussions with potential international partners, aimed at jointly developing the current International Space Station program, were initiated by NASA in 1982. Canada chose, through the further development of the technologies of Canadarm on the space shuttle, to provide and operate an advanced and comprehensive external robotics system for space station, and to use the space station for scientific and commercial purposes. The program was to become a corner-stone of the new Canadian Space Agency. The development phase of the Canadian Space Station Program has been completed and two of the three major elements are currently operational in space.     

International coordination of space solar power related activities

Because the need for energy is global, and many energy networks are already interdependent, because no one country has sufficient technological capability or sufficient funds to provide a space solar powered solution on its own, and because any such solution will require international regulation, international coordination will be vital to any attempt to produce energy for Earth from space. This will be made easier by the fact that work on the subject has already been widely publicized and distributed and cooperative efforts have already been made. Various coordinating approaches are described and the need to forge partnerships between government, industry and academia — with greater involvement of all non-space groups concerned with energy — is emphasized. A “terracing approach” to the actual implementation of SPS is suggested and outlined.     

An Asian perspective on the new US space policy: The emphasis on international cooperation and its relevance to Asia

This viewpoint examines the likely reasons behind the renewed focus on international cooperation in the new US National Space Policy, noting that the rise of various Asian space powers is one factor. It demonstrates the increase in US-Asian space cooperation that is already underway, arguing that such cooperation can only be to the good in providing Asian countries with a greater degree of cutting-edge technology and know-how, as well as contributing to the overall safety and security of outer space. Nevertheless, there will doubtless be problems such as cost overruns and delays and effort will have to be applied if cooperation is to work.     

The future of human spaceflight.

After the Apollo Moon program, the international space station represents a further milestone of humankind in space, International follow-on programs like a manned return to the Moon and a first manned Mars Mission can be considered as the next logical step. More and more attention is also paid to the topic of future space tourism in Earth orbit, which is currently under investigation in the USA, Japan and Europe due to its multibillion dollar market potential and high acceptance in society. The wide variety of experience, gained within the space station program, should be used in order to achieve time and cost savings for future manned programs. Different strategies and roadmaps are investigated for space tourism and human missions to the Moon and Mars, based on a comprehensive systems analysis approach. By using DLR's software tool FAST (Fast Assessment of Space Technologies), different scenarios will be defined, optimised and finally evaluated with respect to mission architecture, required technologies, total costs and program duration. This includes trajectory analysis, spacecraft design on subsystem level, operations and life cycle cost analysis. For space tourism, an expected evolutionary roadmap will be described which is initiated by short suborbital tourism and ends with visionary designs like the Space Hotel Berlin and the Space Hotel Europe concept. Furthermore the potential space tourism market, its economic meaning as well as the expected range of the costs of a space ticket (e.g. $50,000 for a suborbital flight) will be analysed and quantified. For human missions to the Moon and Mars, an international 20 year program for the first decades of the next millennium is proposed, which requires about $2.5 Billion per year for a manned return to the Moon program and about $2.6 Billion per year for the first 3 manned Mars missions. This is about the annual budget, which is currently spend by the USA only for the operations of its Space Shuttle fleet which generally proofs the affordability of such ambitious programs after the build-up of the International Space Station, when corresponding budget might become again available.     

Basic space science and developing countries

Basic science — including space science — is vital for national development, but developing countries often meet obstacles to participation in the international scientific community. This can be mitigated by international cooperation, particularly in the field of education. The author calls for a concerted effort to increase such cooperation regionally, internationally and bilaterally; international organizations should also become involved. Various forms of cooperation are suggested and UN efforts in the promotion of basic space science are described.     

Solidification of Anisotropic Semiconductor Tellurium Samples in Microgravity and Their Properties

A research program was partly completed to determine the influence of microgravity on the crystallization and electrical properties of tellurium, as a semiconductor with both anisotropic crystal lattice and energy spectrum. Three different tellurium samples were solidified in space by a modified Bridgman method in the Crystallizator ChSK-1 furnace aboard the MIR space station. The variation of the crystal structure, charge carrier concentration and mobility along the sample length was investigated and compared with material solidified on earth. The lowest impurity and defect concentrations were obtained in partially melted single crystals resolidified by the Bridgman method. The distribution of electric active and neutral defects along the samples with a concentration as small as 10⁻⁵ at% were measured by a galvanomagnetic method at low temperatures. Some peculiarities of the remelting process connected with microgravity were observed.     

中国空间站光学遥感载荷的发展研究

光学遥感载荷的空间站平台相比卫星平台具有很大的优势,吸引了包括俄罗斯、美国和欧空局在内的国际空间站成员国争相进行空间站光学遥感载荷的新技术实验验证和对地观测研究。文章介绍了国际空间站光学遥感载荷的观测方式和特点,结合国际空间站光学遥感载荷的应用情况,从新技术实验验证和对地观测两个方面分析了中国空间站光学遥感载荷发展应该注意的问题,为中国空间站光学遥感载荷的发展提出了几点建议。     

The beginning of the Mir station active operation

The Mir station of new generation, that was inserted into the orbit on February 20, 1986, went through its systems check during the automatic and man-controlled modes of flight and entered into a new operation phase being permanently manned.The concept of modular space station with six docking units makes it possible to perform docking with manned spacecraft, cargo vehicles and specialized scientific modules, to increase its functional capabilities and to transform the station into a multipurpose permanent orbital complex. Technical capabilities for performing a wide range of experiments, including joint projects for international cooperation program are extended. The main principles that are realized in the new Mir station, as well as scientific problems that are solved during the station operation, are considered in the article.     

International cooperation in space : Enhancing the world's common security

Instead of preparing for space warfare, the USA could make tremendous use of space activities to enhance global security. Arms control verification, environmental monitoring and international cooperation on space missions are important examples. International space year, 1992, could be the time to launch a triumphant effort such as an international mission to Mars.     

Stepping stones toward global space exploration

Several nations are currently engaging in or planning for robotic and human space exploration programs that target the Moon, Mars and near-Earth asteroids. These ambitious plans to build new space infrastructures, transport systems and space probes will require international cooperation if they are to be sustainable and affordable. Partnerships must involve not only established space powers, but also emerging space nations and developing countries; the participation of these new space actors will provide a bottom-up support structure that will aid program continuity, generate more active members in the space community, and increase public awareness of space activities in both developed and developing countries. The integration of many stakeholders into a global space exploration program represents a crucial element securing political and programmatic stability. How can the evolving space community learn to cooperate on a truly international level while engaging emerging space nations and developing countries in a meaningful way? We propose a stepping stone approach toward a global space exploration program, featuring three major elements: (1) an international Earth-based field research program preparing for planetary exploration, (2) enhanced exploitation of the International Space Station (ISS) enabling exploration and (3) a worldwide CubeSat program supporting exploration. An international Earth-based field research program can serve as a truly global exploration testbed that allows both established and new space actors to gain valuable experience by working together to prepare for future planetary exploration missions. Securing greater exploitation of the ISS is a logical step during its prolonged lifetime; ISS experiments, partnerships and legal frameworks are valuable foundations for exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Cooperation involving small, low-cost missions could be a major stride toward exciting and meaningful participation from emerging space nations and developing countries. For each of these three proposed stepping stones, recommendations for coordination mechanisms are presented.     

Iran's space programme: Riding high for peace and pride

Iran's efforts to develop space technology for civil and peaceful purposes began many years ago. Almost all its success in this connection is the result of indigenous potential in terms of human resources, available expertise and experience along with international cooperation and exchange of knowledge. There are considerable civilian entities involved in space-related development and production in Iran. This article describes the history and current status and capabilities of Iran's space programme and its aim to use space for peace and prosperity and to attain the position that it deserves in the global arena. Stepping into space using an indigenously developed system has provided Iran with a notable and unprecedented national pride. Only international cooperation, as already exists in the framework of COPUOS activities on the peaceful uses of outer space, can improve 21st century understanding of the space policy and visions of Iran for the world community. Iran's space programme is really no different from that of any other nation. It is committed to developing its assets in space both for peaceful purposes and for use as part of various multinational space projects. It should not be ignored that such achievements require a high degree of expertise, ability and comprehensive knowledge about the subject, while the attitudes and visions of leaders in each nation who also influence and contribute to the pace, progress and developmental objectives of any nation's space program should not be disregarded.     

Evaluation of the spectrometric and dose characteristics of neutron fields inside the Russian segment of the ISS by fission detectors

The results of measuring the dose and the energy spectrum of neutrons inside the Russian segment of the International Space Station (ISS) from March 21 until November 10, 2002 are presented. Statistically reliable results of measurement are obtained by using thorium- and uranium-based fission detectors with cadmium and boron filters. The kits of the detectors with filters have been arranged in three compartments within assembled passive detectors in the BRADOS space experiment. The ambient dose rate H* = 139 μSv day and an energy spectrum of neutrons in the range of 10^–2–10⁴ MeV is obtained as average for the ISS compartments and is compared with the measurements carried out inside the compartments of the MIR space station. Recommendations on how to improve the procedure for using the fission detectors to measure the characteristics of neutron fields inside the compartments of space stations are formulated.