RPC-MIP: the Mutual Impedance Probe of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium

The main objective of the Mutual Impedance Probe (MIP), part of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC), is to measure the electron density and temperature of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko’s coma, in particular inside the contact surface. Furthermore, MIP will determine the bulk velocity of the ionised outflowing atmosphere, define the spectral distribution of natural plasma waves, and monitor dust and gas activities around the nucleus. The MIP instrumentation consists of an electronics board for signal processing in the 7 kHz to 3.5 MHz range and a sensor unit of two receiving and two transmitting electrodes mounted on a 1-m long bar. In addition, the Langmuir probe of the RPC/LAP instrument that is at about 4 m from the MIP sensor can be used as a transmitter (in place of the MIP ones) and MIP as a receiver in order to have access to the density and temperature of plasmas at higher Debye lengths than those for which the MIP is originally designed.     

RPC: The Rosetta Plasma Consortium

The Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC) will make in-situ measurements of the plasma environment of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The consortium will provide the complementary data sets necessary for an understanding of the plasma processes in the inner coma, and the structure and evolution of the coma with the increasing cometary activity. Five sensors have been selected to achieve this: the Ion and Electron Sensor (IES), the Ion Composition Analyser (ICA), the Langmuir Probe (LAP), the Mutual Impedance Probe (MIP) and the Magnetometer (MAG). The sensors interface to the spacecraft through the Plasma Interface Unit (PIU). The consortium approach allows for scientific, technical and operational coordination, and makes optimum use of the available mass and power resources.     

The Plasma Environment of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko Throughout the Rosetta Main Mission

The plasma environment of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, the Rosetta mission target comet, is explored over a range of heliocentric distances throughout the mission: 3.25 AU (Rosetta instruments on), 2.7 AU (Lander down), 2.0 AU, and 1.3 AU (perihelion). Because of the large range of gas production rates, we have used both a fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) model as well as a semi-kinetic hybrid particle model to study the plasma distribution. We describe the variation in plasma environs over the mission as well as the differences between the two modeling approaches under different conditions. In addition, we present results from a field aligned, two-stream transport electron model of the suprathermal electron flux when the comet is near perihelion.     

ROMAP: Rosetta Magnetometer and Plasma Monitor

The scientific objectives, design and capabilities of the Rosetta Lander’s ROMAP instrument are presented. ROMAP’s main scientific goals are longterm magnetic field and plasma measurements of the surface of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in order to study cometary activity as a function of heliocentric distance, and measurements during the Lander’s descent to investigate the structure of the comet’s remanent magnetisation. The ROMAP fluxgate magnetometer, electrostatic analyser and Faraday cup measure the magnetic field from 0 to 32 Hz, ions of up to 8000 keV and electrons of up to 4200 keV. Additional two types of pressure sensors – Penning and Minipirani – cover a pressure range from 10⁻⁸ to 10¹ mbar. ROMAP’s sensors and electronics are highly integrated, as required by a combined field/plasma instrument with less than 1 W power consumption and 1 kg mass.     

The Rosetta Lander (“Philae”) Investigations

The paper describes the Rosetta Lander named Philae and introduces its complement of scientific instruments. Philae was launched aboard the European Space Agency Rosetta spacecraft on 02 March 2004 and is expected to land and operate on the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at a distance of about 3 AU from the Sun. Its overall mass is ~98 kg (plus the support systems remaining on the Orbiter), including its scientific payload of ~27 kg. It will operate autonomously, using the Rosetta Orbiter as a communication relay to Earth. The scientific goals of its experiments focus on elemental, isotopic, molecular and mineralogical composition of the cometary material, the characterization of physical properties of the surface and subsurface material, the large-scale structure and the magnetic and plasma environment of the nucleus. In particular, surface and sub-surface samples will be acquired and sequentially analyzed by a suite of instruments. Measurements will be performed primarily during descent and along the first five days following touch-down. Philae is designed to also operate on a long time-scale, to monitor the evolution of the nucleus properties. Philae is a very integrated project at system, science and management levels, provided by an international consortium. The Philae experiments have the potential of providing unique scientific outcomes, complementing by in situ ground truth the Rosetta Orbiter investigations. Philae team members are listed in the acknowledgements     

RPC-ICA: The Ion Composition Analyzer of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium

The Ion Composition Analyzer (ICA) is part of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC). ICA is designed to measure the three-dimensional distribution function of positive ions in order to study the interaction between the solar wind and cometary particles. The instrument has a mass resolution high enough to resolve the major species such as protons, helium, oxygen, molecular ions, and heavy ions characteristic of dusty plasma regions. ICA consists of an electrostatic acceptance angle filter, an electrostatic energy filter, and a magnetic momentum filter. Particles are detected using large diameter (100 mm) microchannel plates and a two-dimensional anode system. ICA has its own processor for data reduction/compression and formatting. The energy range of the instrument is from 25 eV to 40 keV and an angular field-of-view of 360° × 90° is achieved through electrostatic deflection of incoming particles.     

Plasma characteristics determined by the Freja electric field instrument

A new approach to the study of ionospheric plasma characteristics is presented using data from the Freja double probe electric field instrument. Plasma characteristics are derived from continuous measurements of the satellite potential and from intermittent Langmuir sweeps. These provide information on both relative variations in the plasma density and absolute density and temperature, useful for comparisons with other plasma measurements on Freja, and essential for the interpretation of the electric field measurements. The on-board memory makes it possible to obtain full-orbit coverage of this type of information, which is a new feature of the Freja measurements. The memory is also used for high time resolution Langmuir sweeps which allow for the first time detailed studies of the time behavior of the probe response and computation of the probe-plasma capacitance. Comparisons are also made with similar measurements on earlier missions.     

用于飞行器的强电离放电非平衡等离子体隐身方法研究

着重研究了等离子体临界电子密度、电子等离子体频率等参数对电磁波的折射、吸收、反射的影响。在此基础上,采用了强电场电离放电方法,在放电间隙内产生高密度、高能量的电子,它足以电离氮、氧等气体,在飞行器表面形成具有一定梯度的高密度等离子体层,能够吸收、折射电磁波,衰减雷达散射面积达千余倍。该等离子体器件是一个很薄的组合件,仅有百余克重,可贴附在电磁波强散射部位和进气道壁上。此方法具有吸收频带宽、吸收率高等特点,有望成为机载微型等离子体产生器件。     

THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND WAVE EXPERIMENT FOR THE CLUSTER MISSION

The electric-field and wave experiment (EFW) on Cluster is designed to measure the electric-field and density fluctuations with sampling rates up to 36000 samples s^-1. Langmuir probe sweeps can also be made to determine the electron density and temperature. The instrument has several important capabilities. These include (1) measurements of quasi-static electric fields of amplitudes up to 700 mV m^-1 with high amplitude and time resolution, (2) measurements over short periods of time of up to five simualtaneous waveforms (two electric signals and three magnetic signals from the seach coil magnetometer sensors) of a bandwidth of 4 kHz with high time resolution, (3) measurements of density fluctuations in four points with high time resolution. Among the more interesting scientific objectives of the experiment are studies of nonlinear wave phenomena that result in acceleration of plasma as well as large- and small-scale interferometric measurements. By using four spacecraft for large-scale differential measurements and several Langmuir probes on one spacecraft for small-scale interferometry, it will be possible to study motion and shape of plasma structures on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. This paper describes the primary scientific objectives of the EFW experiment and the technical capabilities of the instrument.     

微波干涉仪在火箭羽流电子密度测定中应用研究

为研究火箭羽流的等离子体对导弹隐身性能和制导能力的影响,利用微波干涉仪设计了一种基于微波法的电子密度测试系统。采用有效的噪声屏蔽硬件措施和消除噪声的数据处理方法,提高了电子密度测试的精度。准确测试出不同推进剂之间电子密度特征上的差异,其测试结果与理论预估相符。该测试系统的使用对高电子密度的推进剂配方改进及等离子发动机设计具有一定的指导意义。     

Absolute Electron Density Measurement Techniques in Hypersonic Wakes

New techniques have been evolved for the application of Langmuir probes to the measurement of electron densities in the wakes of hypersonic projectiles flown in ballistic ranges. These techniques concern probe cleanliness, minimization of flow disturbance, minimization of reflected shocks, and the effect of plasma potential. Electron density level estimates obtained with the probes in sphere wakes were in good agreement with electron density estimates derived from simultaneous measurements with a microwave interferometer.     

RPC-IES: The Ion and Electron Sensor of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium

The ion and electron sensor (IES) is part of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC). The IES consists of two electrostatic plasma analyzers, one each for ions and electrons, which share a common entrance aperture. Each analyzer covers an energy/charge range from 1 eV/e to 22 keV/e with a resolution of 4%. Electrostatic deflection is used at the entrance aperture to achieve a field of view of 90°× 360° (2.8π sr). Angular resolution is 5°× 22.5° for electrons and 5°× 45° for ions with the sector containing the solar wind being further segmented to 5°× 5°. The three-dimensional plasma distributions obtained by IES will be used to investigate the interaction of the solar wind with asteroids Steins and Lutetia and the coma and nucleus of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (CG). In addition, photoelectron spectra obtained at these bodies will help determine their composition.     

用于飞行器隐身的闭式等离子体厚度选择分析

为分析闭式等离子体用于飞行器隐身的可行性,引入了可观隐身效果的概念及对应的闭式等离子体厚度。采用WKB方法,详细研究了X波段下的闭式等离子体吸波效果,得到了对应频段下产生可观隐身效果需要的等离子体厚度;研究了不同电子密度分布的吸波特性,数值算例说明,对不同电子密度分布的等离子体,吸波效果与厚度均成线性关系,同时,采用理论推导验证了该现象的正确性。结果表明,对于给定的电磁波,采用一定厚度的闭式等离子体可以达到可观隐身效果。     

The Multi-Needle Langmuir Probe System on Board NorSat-1

On July 14th, 2017, the first Norwegian scientific satellite NorSat-1 was launched into a high-inclination (98^°), low-Earth orbit (600 km altitude) from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. As part of the payload package, NorSat-1 carries the multi-needle Langmuir probe (m-NLP) instrument which is capable of sampling the electron density at a rate up to 1 kHz, thus offering an unprecedented opportunity to continuously resolve ionospheric plasma density structures down to a few meters. Over the coming years, NorSat-1 will cross the equatorial and polar regions twice every 90 minutes, providing a wealth of data that will help to better understand the mechanisms that dissipate energy input from larger spatial scales by creating small-scale plasma density structures within the ionosphere. In this paper we describe the m-NLP system on board NorSat-1 and present some first results from the instrument commissioning phase. We show that the m-NLP instrument performs as expected and highlight its unique capabilities at resolving small-scale ionospheric plasma density structures.     

The Cassini Radio and Plasma Wave Investigation

The Cassini radio and plasma wave investigation is designed to study radio emissions, plasma waves, thermal plasma, and dust in the vicinity of Saturn. Three nearly orthogonal electric field antennas are used to detect electric fields over a frequency range from 1 Hz to 16 MHz, and three orthogonal search coil magnetic antennas are used to detect magnetic fields over a frequency range from 1 Hz to 12 kHz. A Langmuir probe is used to measure the electron density and temperature. Signals from the electric and magnetic antennas are processed by five receiver systems: a high frequency receiver that covers the frequency range from 3.5 kHz to 16 MHz, a medium frequency receiver that covers the frequency range from 24 Hz to 12 kHz, a low frequency receiver that covers the frequency range from 1 Hz to 26 Hz, a five-channel waveform receiver that covers the frequency range from 1 Hz to 2.5 kHz in two bands, 1 Hz to 26 Hz and 3 Hz to 2.5 kHz, and a wideband receiver that has two frequency bands, 60 Hz to 10.5 kHz and 800 Hz to 75 kHz. In addition, a sounder transmitter can be used to stimulate plasma resonances over a frequency range from 3.6 kHz to 115.2 kHz. Fluxes of micron-sized dust particles can be counted and approximate masses of the dust particles can be determined using the same techniques as Voyager. Compared to Voyagers 1 and 2, which are the only spacecraft that have made radio and plasma wave measurements in the vicinity of Saturn, the Cassini radio and plasma wave instrument has several new capabilities. These include (1) greatly improved sensitivity and dynamic range, (2) the ability to perform direction-finding measurements of remotely generated radio emissions and wave normal measurements of plasma waves, (3) both active and passive measurements of plasma resonances in order to give precise measurements of the local electron density, and (4) Langmuir probe measurements of the local electron density and temperature. With these new capabilities, it will be possible to perform a broad range of studies of radio emissions, wave-particle interactions, thermal plasmas and dust in the vicinity of Saturn.DeceasedThis revised version was published online in July 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

微波在薄层等离子体中传输效应研究

为了准确预测再入飞行过程中等离子体对微波传输特性的影响,采用WKB方法、FDTD方法、平面波理论和薄层等离子体理论4种方法,结合粉末激波管上开展的试验研究了X波段和Ka波段微波在薄层等离子体中的传输效应。对于X波段,试验时激波马赫数为9.6、10.7和10.5;对于Ka波段,试验时激波马赫数为10.5。通过对比与分析获得的主要结论有：当等离子体厚度和入射波波长相近时,薄层等离子体理论计算结果比其它三种方法的计算结果更接近于试验结果;在碰撞频率接近并且电子密度小于临界电子密度的条件下,Ka波段微波信号穿过相同厚度的等离子体比X波段微波信号衰减小得多,具有更强的穿透性;如果等离子体碰撞频率和微波入射频率相同,随着电子密度的增加,微波信号穿过相同厚度的等离子体时衰减变大;当碰撞频率和入射波频率差不多时,共振吸收导致衰减达到最大值。     

等离子体涡电磁散射特性及隐身性能

 针对非均匀等离子体在飞行器隐身中的应用,采用分段线性电流密度递归卷积时域有限差分（PLJERC-FDTD）方法计算等离子体涡及涡串电磁散射特性,分析等离子体涡对飞行器隐身性能影响。计算表明,等离子体涡在很大频率区间对电磁波吸收效果显著,RCS降低很大,具有明显的隐身效果。等离子体涡表现出一定规律性的极化特性,对L,S和C波段电磁波具有不同的吸收、反射特性。     

等离子体激励抑制喷管分离流动数值模拟

为研究等离子体激励器对喷管分离流动的抑制作用,运用了模拟等离子体激励作用效果的唯象学模型,数值模拟研究了交流介质阻挡放电等离子体和电弧放电等离子体对喷管分离流动的抑制效果,并探究了电弧放电等离子体不同放电热功率密度、不同放电位置对抑制效果的影响。结果表明：电弧放电等离子体在抑制喷管分离流动方面有更好的效果。当电弧放电等离子体激励器作用于激波与边界层相互作用区的上游时,对分离流动的抑制效果最好;当电弧放电热功率密度较小时,其产生的诱导射流速度很小且不易对分离区的流线产生影响;当电弧放电热功率密度为8×10¹⁰ W/m³时,喷管的分离回流区完全消失。     

套筒式等离子体周期结构电磁特性研究

为分析研究等离子体色散媒质在周期结构中对电磁波的作用机理,设计一种在二维方向上周期排列的内外双层套筒式柱体结构单元,对不同的等离子体密度组合和周期间距下进行仿真分析。结果表明,改变内外层等离子体密度可以有效调节传输频带,且在不改变单元结构的基础上通过便捷开关等离子体激发湮灭状态,进而对单元的周期间距进行间接调控,拓宽了传输频带,体现了等离子体动态重构的可行性,对研究等离子体周期结构具有一定的启发性。     

感性耦合夹层等离子体隐身天线罩电磁散射分析

设计了一种石英夹层感性耦合等离子体（ICP）隐身天线罩模型,采用有限元与Z变换时域有限差分（ZT-FDTD）联合仿真的方法,建立了ICP放电的流体模型,得到不同气压及功率下与电磁散射相关的电子密度空间分布,在此基础上建立Z变换时域有限差分法模型,对石英夹层等离子体隐身天线罩的宽频段后向散射进行计算,同时利用微波干涉法及XFDTD软件对算法及程序进行验证。结果表明：感性耦合等离子体可产生较高密度等离子体,能有效实现雷达散射截面（RCS）的减缩,在气压为2 Pa时,碰撞衰减较弱,等离子体密度分布较均匀,衰减带宽集中在等离子体振荡频率附近,功率增加会使衰减峰值向高频方向移动,气压为20 Pa时,碰撞衰减增强,且等离子体密度分布有较大梯度,衰减带宽有效增加,同时RCS曲线的波动特性加强。