Mass Measurements of Stellar and Intermediate-Mass Black Holes

We discuss the method, and potential systematic effects therein, used for measuring the mass of stellar-mass black holes in X-ray binaries. We restrict our discussion to the method that relies on the validity of Kepler’s laws; we refer to this method as the dynamical method. We briefly discuss the implications of the mass distribution of stellar-mass black holes and provide an outlook for future measurements. Further, we investigate the evidence for the existence of intermediate-mass black holes i.e. black holes with masses above 100 M_⊙, the limit to the black hole mass that can be produced by stellar evolution in the current Universe.     

Observational Appearance of Black Holes in X-Ray Binaries and AGN

Accretion onto black holes powers most luminous compact sources in the Universe. Black holes are found with masses extending over an extraordinary broad dynamic range, from several to a few billion times the mass of the Sun. Depending on their position on the mass scale, they may manifest themselves as X-ray binaries or active galactic nuclei. X-ray binaries harbor stellar mass black holes—endpoints of the evolution of massive stars. They have been studied by X-ray astronomy since its inception in the early 60-ies, however, the enigma of the most luminous of them—ultra-luminous X-ray sources, still remains unsolved. Supermassive black holes, lurking at the centers of galaxies, are up to hundreds of millions times more massive and give rise to the wide variety of different phenomena collectively termed “Active Galactic Nuclei”. The most luminous of them reach the Eddington luminosity limit for a few billions solar masses object and are found at redshifts as high as z≥5–7. Accretion onto supermassive black holes in AGN and stellar- and (possibly) intermediate mass black holes in X-ray binaries and ultra-luminous X-ray sources in star-forming galaxies can explain most, if not all, of the observed brightness of the cosmic X-ray background radiation. Despite the vast difference in the mass scale, accretion in X-ray binaries and AGN is governed by the same physical laws, so a degree of quantitative analogy among them is expected. Indeed, all luminous black holes are successfully described by the standard Shakura-Sunyaev theory of accretion disks, while the output of low-luminosity accreting black holes in the form of mechanical and radiative power of the associated jets obeys to a unified scaling relation, termed as the “fundamental plane of black holes”. From that standpoint, in this review we discuss formation of radiation in X-ray binaries and AGN, emphasizing their main similarities and differences, and examine our current knowledge of the demographics of stellar mass and supermassive black holes.     

Massive Binary Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei and Their Path to Coalescence

Massive binary black holes (10⁵ M_⊙–10⁹ M_⊙) form at the centre of galaxies that experience a merger episode. They are expected to coalesce into a larger black hole, following the emission of gravitational waves. Coalescing massive binary black holes are among the loudest sources of gravitational waves in the Universe, and the detection of these events is at the frontier of contemporary astrophysics. Understanding the black hole binary formation path and dynamics in galaxy’s mergers is therefore mandatory. A key question poses: during a merger, will the black holes descend over time on closer orbits, form a Keplerian binary and coalesce shortly after? Here we review progress discussing the fate of black holes in different environments: from major mergers of collisionless galaxies to major and minor mergers of gas-rich disc galaxies, from smooth and clumpy circum-nuclear discs to circum-binary discs present on the smallest scales inside galactic nuclei.     

X-Ray Observations of Powerful AGN Outflows

Highly ionised winds with velocities ～0.1–0.2c were first detected in X-ray spectra of non-BAL AGN a decade ago. Subsequent observations and archival searches have shown such winds to be a common feature of luminous AGN, increasing the belief that powerful ionised winds have a wider importance in galaxy feedback models. Paradoxically, for the best-quantified high velocity outflow (the luminous Seyfert PG1211+143) the wind appears too powerful to be compatible with the observed stellar bulge and black hole masses, suggesting the energy coupling of wind to bulge gas must be inefficient. A recent XMM-Newton observation of the narrow line Seyfert NGC 4051 offers an explanation of this apparent paradox, finding evidence for the fast ionised wind to lose most of its kinetic energy after shocking against the ISM. Importantly, the wind momentum is maintained through such a shock, supporting the view that a momentum-driven flow provides the critical link between black hole and stellar bulge growth implied by the observed M–σ relationship.     

Searching for Black Holes in Space

Although General Relativity had provided the physical basis of black holes, evidence for their existence had to await the Space Era when X-ray observations first directed the attention of astronomers to the unusual binary stars Cygnus X-1 and A0620-00. Subsequently, a number of faint Ariel 5 and Uhuru X-ray sources, mainly at high Galactic latitude, were found to lie close to bright Seyfert galaxies, suggesting the nuclear activity in AGN might also be driven by accretion in the strong gravity of a black hole. Detection of rapid X-ray variability with EXOSAT later confirmed that the accreting object in an AGN is almost certainly a supermassive black hole.     

Multi-Wavelength Variability

Multiwavelength variability data, combined with spectral-timing analysis techniques, provides information about the causal relationship between different physical components in accreting black holes. Using fast-timing data and long-term monitoring, we can probe the behaviour of the same components across the black hole mass scale. In this chapter we review the observational status of multiwavelength variability in accreting black holes, from black hole X-ray binaries to AGN, and consider the implications for models of accretion and ejection, primarily considering the evidence for accretion disc and jet variability in these systems. We end with a consideration of future prospects in this quickly-developing field.     

Scaling Relations from Stellar to Supermassive Black Holes

Accretion is a ubiquitous phenomenon—it is seen in sources ranging from young stars to accreting supermassive black holes in the centres of galaxies. Here, we present the known empirical connections between stellar mass X-ray binaries and active galactic nuclei. We argue that this implies that both the accretion disc and the jet are scale invariant with respect to the black hole mass. Finally, we show that also accretion discs and jets in sources with a different accretor can be connected empirically to accreting black holes, hinting towards a common mechanism of accretion in all sources.     

Black Hole Spin via Continuum Fitting and the Role of Spin in Powering Transient Jets

The spins of ten stellar black holes have been measured using the continuum-fitting method. These black holes are located in two distinct classes of X-ray binary systems, one that is persistently X-ray bright and another that is transient. Both the persistent and transient black holes remain for long periods in a state where their spectra are dominated by a thermal accretion disk component. The spin of a black hole of known mass and distance can be measured by fitting this thermal continuum spectrum to the thin-disk model of Novikov and Thorne; the key fit parameter is the radius of the inner edge of the black hole’s accretion disk. Strong observational and theoretical evidence links the inner-disk radius to the radius of the innermost stable circular orbit, which is trivially related to the dimensionless spin parameter a _? of the black hole (|a _?|<1). The ten spins that have so far been measured by this continuum-fitting method range widely from a _?≈0 to a _?>0.95. The robustness of the method is demonstrated by the dozens or hundreds of independent and consistent measurements of spin that have been obtained for several black holes, and through careful consideration of many sources of systematic error. Among the results discussed is a dichotomy between the transient and persistent black holes; the latter have higher spins and larger masses. Also discussed is recently discovered evidence in the transient sources for a correlation between the power of ballistic jets and black hole spin.     

X-ray Spectroscopy of Accreting White Dwarfs

The advent of the grating spectrometers onboard Chandra and XMM-Newton opened up a new era in plasma diagnostics of compact binaries. High resolution spectroscopy using these spectrometers is of particular use in investigating accretion plasmas in cataclysmic variables (CVs) because they show a wealth of emission lines owing to their optically thin thermal nature. In this review, I present recent progress on density measurements of the plasma in magnetic CVs by means of He-like triplet and iron L lines, and the outcome of line velocity measurements in the dwarf nova SS Cygni in outburst, to demonstrate the potential power of high resolution spectroscopy to elucidate the geometry of the plasma. In the end, our expectations for the Soft X-ray Spectrometer onboard the forthcoming X-ray mission Astro-H are summarized.     

Measuring the Masses of Supermassive Black Holes

Supermassive black holes reside at the centers of most, if not all, massive galaxies: the difference between active and quiescent galaxies is due to differences in mass accretion rate and radiative efficiency rather than whether or not they have nuclear black holes. In this contribution, methods for measuring the masses of supermassive black holes are discussed, with emphasis on reverberation mapping which is most generally applicable to accreting supermassive black holes and, in particular, to distant quasars where time resolution can be used as a surrogate for angular resolution. Indirect methods based on scaling relationships from reverberation mapping studies are also discussed, along with their current limitations.     

An Overview of Jets and Outflows in Stellar Mass Black Holes

In this article, we will briefly review the current empirical understanding of the relation between accretion state and outflows in accreting stellar mass black holes. The focus will be on the empirical connections between X-ray states and relativistic (‘radio’) jets, although we are now also able to draw accretion disc winds into the picture in a systematic way. We will furthermore consider the latest attempts to measure/order jet power, and to compare it to other (potentially) measurable quantities, most importantly black hole spin.     

CCD spectroscopy of the W Serpentis binaries KX And and RX Cas

Initial results are presented from a study of H _γ profiles in the two interacting binaries KX And and RX Cas of W Serpentis type. The used CCD spectra with a resolution of 0.13Å/px were obtained with the 2.2m telescope and the Coudé spectrograph at the German-Spanish Astronomical Center at Calar Alto/Spain. KX And. This star is probably a non-eclipsing member of the W Serpentis type interactive binaries and has a period of P = 38.908 days. Our seven spectra of KX And were obtained at phase 0.54 – 0.75. The P Cyg profiles of the H _γ line during our observations indicate an expanding shell. The asymetry becomes blue-sided at phase 0.67 and increases thereafter. This points toward a strong outflow of matter in the vicinity of the L3 point. RX Cas. According to the model of Andersen et al. (1988) the primary is a mid-B type star with M = 5.8M _⊙ and R = 2.5R _⊙. The star is completely obscured by a geometrically and optically thick disk, which is supplied by mass transfer from the other component. The secondary is a K1 giant with M = 1.8M _⊙ and R = 23.5R _⊙ and fills out his critical Roche lobe. Radiative and geometrical properties of the disk are variable and its structure is probably not homogenous. Five spectra of RX Cas were obtained during the primary eclipse (phase 0.95 – 0.19). The observed double-peak emission is seen only after the eclipse with a separation of ≈ 250 km/s peak-to-peak, while during the eclipse an asymetric line profile can be observed with a red-shifted emission always presented. Also, a central emission at φ = 0.94 should be noticed, probably originating in the vicinity of L1. The observations of both systems indicate that we are dealing with strongly interacting binaries. Further observations are planned for better covering of phase.     

Fast Variability from Black-Hole Binaries

Currently available information on fast variability of the X-ray emission from accreting collapsed objects constitutes a complex phenomenology which is difficult to interpret. We review the current observational standpoint for black-hole binaries and survey models that have been proposed to interpret it. Despite the complex structure of the accretion flow, key observational diagnostics have been identified which can provide direct access to the dynamics of matter motions in the close vicinity of black holes and thus to the some of fundamental properties of curved spacetimes, where strong-field general relativistic effects can be observed.     

X-ray Diffraction Gratings for Astrophysics

Over the past year, we have celebrated the tenth anniversary of the Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories. Both carry powerful, novel diffraction grating spectrometers, which have opened true X-ray spectroscopy for astrophysics. I will describe the design and operation of these instruments, as the background to some of the beautiful results they have produced. But these designs do not exhaust the versatility and essential simplicity of diffraction grating spectrometers, and I will discuss applications for the International X-ray Observatory IXO.     

Jet–Environment Interactions as Diagnostics of Jet Physics

In this chapter, we will explore the interaction of jets with their environments. Jets can transport a sizable fraction of accretion energy away from black holes and neutron stars. Because they are collimated, they can travel to distances far beyond the gravitational sphere of influence of the black hole. Yet, their interaction with the interstellar and intergalactic medium must eventually halt their advance and dissipate the energy they carry. The termination of the jet, and the inflation of large scale cavities of relativistic plasma offers one of the most powerful ways to constrain the physics of jets. In this chapter, we will review the inflation of radio lobes, the propagation of hot spots, the creation of shells and cavities, and the bending of jet by proper motion through their environment, both in the context of AGN jets and microquasars.     

Energetic and Broad Band Spectral Distribution of Emission from Astronomical Jets

Emission from astronomical jets extend over the entire spectral band: from radio to the TeV γ-rays. This implies that various radiative processes are taking place in different regions along jets. Understanding the origin of the emission is crucial in understanding the physical conditions inside jets, as well as basic physical questions such as jet launching mechanism, particle acceleration and jet composition. In this chapter I discuss various radiative mechanisms, focusing on jets in active galactic nuclei (AGN) and X-ray binaries (XRB) environment. I discuss various models in use in interpreting the data, and the insights they provide.     

Supermassive Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei: Past, Present and Future Research

This review discusses the current status of supermassive black hole research, as seen from a purely observational standpoint. Since the early ‘90s, rapid technological advances, most notably the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope, the commissioning of the VLBA and improvements in near-infrared speckle imaging techniques, have not only given us incontrovertible proof of the existence of supermassive black holes, but have unveiled fundamental connections between the mass of the central singularity and the global properties of the host galaxy. It is thanks to these observations that we are now, for the first time, in a position to understand the origin, evolution and cosmic relevance of these fascinating objects.This revised version was published online in July 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

The Supermassive Black Hole—Galaxy Connection

The observed scaling relations imply that supermassive black holes (SMBH) and their host galaxies evolve together. Near-Eddington winds from the SMBH accretion discs explain many aspects of this connection. The wind Eddington factor \(\dot{m}\) should be in the range ～1–30. A factor \(\dot{m}\sim 1\) give black hole winds with velocities v～0.1c, observable in X-rays, just as seen in the most extreme ultrafast outflows (UFOs). Higher Eddington factors predict slower and less ionized winds, observable in the UV, as in BAL QSOs. In all cases the wind must shock against the host interstellar gas and it is plausible that these shocks should cool efficiently. There is detailed observational evidence for this in some UFOs. The wind sweeps up the interstellar gas into a thin shell and propels it outwards. For SMBH masses below a certain critical (M–σ) value, all these outflows eventually stall and fall back, as the Eddington thrust of the wind is too weak to drive the gas to large radii. But once the SMBH mass reaches the critical M–σ value the global character of the outflow changes completely. The wind shock is no longer efficiently cooled, and the resulting thermal expansion drives the interstellar gas far from the black hole, which is unlikely to grow significantly further. Simple estimates of the maximum stellar bulge mass M _b allowed by self-limited star formation show that the SMBH mass is typically about 10^?3 M _b at this point, in line with observation. The expansion-driven outflow reaches speeds v _out?1200 km?s^?1 and drives rates \(\dot{M}_{\mathrm{out}}\sim 4000~\mathrm {M}_{\odot }\,\mathrm{yr}^{-1}\) in cool (molecular) gas, giving a typical outflow mechanical energy L _mech?0.05L _Edd, where L _Edd is the Eddington luminosity of the central SMBH. This is again in line with observation. These massive outflows may be what makes galaxies become red and dead, and can have several other potentially observable effects. In particular they have the right properties to enrich the intergalactic gas with metals. Our current picture of SMBH-galaxy coevolution is still incomplete, as there is no predictive theory of how the hole accretes gas from its surroundings. Recent progress in understanding how large-scale discs of gas can partially cancel angular momentum and promote dynamical infall offers a possible way forward.     

Evolution into contact of the low-mass close binary systems

We investigated the effect of mass accretion on the secondary components in close binomy systems (M _total ≤ 2.5 M _⊙ M _2,0 ≤ 0.75 M _⊙) exchanging mass in the case A. The evolution of the low-mass close binary systems (M _total ≤ 2.5 M _⊙) exchanging the mass in the case A depends on the three main factors:

-the initial mass ratio (q ₀ = M _2,0/M _1,0), which determines the rate of mass transfer between components;

-the inital mass of the secondary component (M _2,0) and

-the effectiveness of the heating of the photosphere of the secondary component, by infalling matter.

The second factor allows to divide all systems into two essentially different groups:

1. systems in which the secondary component is a star with a radiative envelope, or with a thin convection zone in the uppermost layers;
2. and systems in which secondary component has a thick convective envelope or is fully convective.

The systems from the first group evolve into contact in a characteristic time scale 10⁵ – 10⁷ years, and reach contact after transfering of 0.03 – 0.3 M _⊙. The mass exchange proceeds only in a thermal time scale. For the systems from the group b the effectiveness of the heating of the stellar surface is the most important. In the case when the entropy of the newly accreted matter is the same as the surface entropy of the secondary, a convective star should shrink upon accretion. Then contact binaries are not formed. In the case when the entropy of the infalling matter is greater then that on the surface, the reaction of the secondary is different. The radius of the secondary component grows rapidly in response to accretion, and the systems reaches contact after the 10³ – 3 10⁶ years, and after transfer of 0.002 – 0.2. M _⊙. The reaction of the secondary is determined by the formation of the temperature inversion layer below the stellar surface. Full references in: Sarna, M.J. and Fedorova, A.V. (1988) “Evolutionary status of W UMa-type Binaries — Evolution into contact”, Astron. Astrophys., in press.     

Results of evolutionary computations of primaries of close binaries with different initial composition

The present paper summarizes fundamental evolutionary parameters of primaries of close binaries with initial masses between 9 and 60 M_⊙ and initial composition appropriate for the Galaxy, the LMC and the SMC. The primary timescales and WR binary timescales are compared with corresponding recent single star predictions.