Spaceflight opportunities on the ISS for plant research--the ESA perspective.

Two ESA facilities will be available for plant research and other biological experiments on the International Space Station: the Modular Cultivation System (MCS) and BIOLAB. While BIOLAB will be launched with the European "Columbus" Module, MCS will be part of the Early Utilisation Agreement with NASA and integrated in the US Lab. Both facilities use standard Experiment Containers, mounted on two centrifuge rotors providing either microgravity or variable g-levels up to 2xg. Transparent covers allow illumination and observation (also near-infrared) of the internal experiment hardware containing the plant specimen. Standard interface plates provide each container with power and data lines, gas supply (controlled CO2, O2 and water vapour concentration; ethylene removal), and--for MCS only--connectors to water reservoirs. Besides the two concepts of environmental control in both facilities, there is a difference in container size (BIOLAB 0.36 l, height with respect to the g-vector 60 mm; MCS 0.58 l, height 160 mm) and in the degree of automation. The design of BIOLAB and MCS will be complimentary to NASA's Plant Research Unit (volume 20 l, height 380 mm) and should allow continuation of Space research on protoplasts, callus cultures, algae, fungi and seedlings, as earlier flown on Biorack, and new experiments with larger specimens of fungi, mosses and vascular plants.     

NASDA aquatic animal experiment facilities for Space Shuttle and ISS.

National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) has developed aquatic animal experiment facilities for NASA Space Shuttle use. Vestibular Function Experiment Unit (VFEU) was firstly designed and developed for physiological research using carp in Spacelab-J (SL-J, STS-47) mission. It was modified as Aquatic Animal Experiment Unit (AAEU) to accommodate small aquatic animals, such as medaka and newt, for second International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2, STS-65) mission. Then, VFEU was improved to accommodate marine fish and to perform neurobiological experiment for Neurolab (STS-90) and STS-95 missions. We have also developed and used water purification system which was adapted to each facility. Based on these experiences of Space Shuttle missions, we are studying to develop advanced aquatic animal experiment facility for both Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS).     

Changes in operational procedures to improve spaceflight experiments in plant biology in the European Modular Cultivation System

The microgravity environment aboard orbiting spacecraft has provided a unique laboratory to explore topics in basic plant biology as well as applied research on the use of plants in bioregenerative life support systems. Our group has utilized the European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS) aboard the International Space Station (ISS) to study plant growth, development, tropisms, and gene expression in a series of spaceflight experiments. The most current project performed on the ISS was termed Seedling Growth-1 (SG-1) which builds on the previous TROPI (for tropisms) experiments performed in 2006 and 2010. Major technical and operational changes in SG-1 (launched in March 2013) compared to the TROPI experiments include: (1) improvements in lighting conditions within the EMCS to optimize the environment for phototropism studies, (2) the use of infrared illumination to provide high-quality images of the seedlings, (3) modifications in procedures used in flight to improve the focus and overall quality of the images, and (4) changes in the atmospheric conditions in the EMCS incubator. In SG-1, a novel red-light-based phototropism in roots and hypocotyls of seedlings that was noted in TROPI was confirmed and now can be more precisely characterized based on the improvements in procedures. The lessons learned from sequential experiments in the TROPI hardware provide insights to other researchers developing space experiments in plant biology.     

ESA microgravity payloads for the 1990s

Analysis of flight opportunities of existing and new microgravity multi-user facilities on Eureca and Spacelab and design studies of new experimental facilities for Columbus are presently in progress.

The materials and fluid sciences research community is likely to be a major user of the permanently manned Space Station/Columbus elements such as the European Attached Pressurised Module (APM) and the Man-Tended Free Flyer (MTFF).

In metallurgy, crystal growth and bioengineering initial research will be performed in the manned laboratory, whereas later on the processing will be automated and executed on unmanned platforms.

At present ESA prepares - in close cooperation with the scientific community - the hardware development of microgravity experimental facilities/laboratories for all Columbus elements through design studies. Preliminary studies which have been carried out to date are the following : Crystallisation Laboratory, Fluid Sciences Laboratory, Containerless Processing Laboratory, Thermophysical Properties Measurement Facility, Metallurgy Laboratory.

In 1998 it is planned to deepen these studies covering laboratories for the APM and for the MTFF. Details on flight opportunities in the pre-Columbus period will also be provided.     

NASDA next generation aquatic habitat for Space Shuttle and ISS.

The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) has more than 20 years of experience developing aquatic animal experiment facilities. We are now studying the next-generation aquatic animal experiment facility or the Aquatic Habitat (AQH) for both Space Shuttle and International Space Station use. A prototype breeding system was designed and tested. Medaka adult fish were able to mate and spawn in this closed circulatory breeding system, and the larvae grew to adult fish and spawned on the 45th day after hatching. The water quality-control system using nitrifying bacteria worked well throughout the medaka breeding test. For amphibians, we also conducted the African clawed toad (Xenopus laevis) breeding test with the same specimen chambers, although a part of circulation loop was opened to air. Xenopus larvae grew and completed metamorphosis successfully in the small specimen chamber. The first metamorphic climax started on the 30th day and was completed on the 38th day.     

Animal research facility for Space Station Freedom.

An integrated animal research facility is planned by NASA for Space Station Freedom which will permit long-term, man-tended experiments on the effects of space conditions on vertebrates. The key element in this facility is a standard type animal habitat which supports and maintains the animals under full bioisolation during transport and during the experiment. A holding unit accommodates the habitats with animals to be maintained at zero gravity; and a centrifuge, those to be maintained at artificial gravity for control purposes or for gravity threshold studies. A glovebox permits handling of the animals for experimental purposes and for transfer to a clean habitat. These facilities are described, and the aspects of environmental control, monitoring, and bioisolation are discussed.     

The status of space science and technology in developed countries — The european experience

Space research in Western Europe began in the form of independent national space programmes confined in the first instance to the use of sounding rockets. These early steps were soon supplemented by bilateral collaborative projects with the USA and USSR whose agencies provided the satellite launch vehicles that Europe lacked at that time.In 1962 as a result of an agreement between ten member states the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) was established for the purpose of carrying out a programme of space science. ESRO was succeeded in 1974 by the European Space Agency (ESA) with a much broader range of activities covering both scientific research and the application of space technology together with the development of launch vehicles.At the present time the totality of space activities of the ESA member states is made up of national programmes and collaborative projects with other nations and agencies together with participation in the agreed ESA programme. Because of its essentially non-military character, its relatively modest level of funding and its multinational nature the European experience with ESA may provide some useful guidance in the development of space science and technology elsewhere in the world.     

Improvements in the re-flight of spaceflight experiments on plant tropisms

In order to effectively study phototropism, the directed growth in response to light, we performed a series of experiments in microgravity to better understand light response without the “complications” of a 1-g stimulus. These experiments were named TROPI (for tropisms) and were performed on the European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS), a laboratory facility on the International Space Station (ISS). TROPI-1 was performed in 2006, and while it was a successful experiment, there were a number of technical difficulties. We had the opportunity to perform TROPI-2 in 2010 and were able to optimize experimental conditions as well as to extend the studies of phototropism to fractional gravity created by the EMCS centrifuge. This paper focuses on how the technical improvements in TROPI-2 allowed for a better experiment with increased scientific return. Major modifications in TROPI-2 compared to TROPI-1 included the use of spaceflight hardware that was off-gassed for a longer period and reduced seed storage (less than 2 months) in hardware. These changes resulted in increased seed germination and more vigorous growth of seedlings. While phototropism in response to red illumination was observed in hypocotyls of seedlings grown in microgravity during TROPI-1, there was a greater magnitude of red-light-based phototropic curvature in TROPI-2. Direct downlinking of digital images from the ISS in TROPI-2, rather than the use of analog tapes in TROPI-1, resulted in better quality images and simplified data analyses. In TROPI-2, improved cryo-procedures and the use of the GLACIER freezer during transport of samples back to Earth maintained the low temperature necessary to obtain good-quality RNA required for use in gene profiling studies.     

Operations of a spaceflight experiment to investigate plant tropisms

Plants will be an important component in bioregenerative systems for long-term missions to the Moon and Mars. Since gravity is reduced both on the Moon and Mars, studies that identify the basic mechanisms of plant growth and development in altered gravity are required to ensure successful plant production on these space colonization missions. To address these issues, we have developed a project on the International Space Station (ISS) to study the interaction between gravitropism and phototropism in Arabidopsis thaliana. These experiments were termed TROPI (for tropisms) and were performed on the European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS) in 2006. In this paper, we provide an operational summary of TROPI and preliminary results on studies of tropistic curvature of seedlings grown in space. Seed germination in TROPI was lower compared to previous space experiments, and this was likely due to extended storage in hardware for up to 8 months. Video downlinks provided an important quality check on the automated experimental time line that also was monitored with telemetry. Good quality images of seedlings were obtained, but the use of analog video tapes resulted in delays in image processing and analysis procedures. Seedlings that germinated exhibited robust phototropic curvature. Frozen plant samples were returned on three space shuttle missions, and improvements in cold stowage and handing procedures in the second and third missions resulted in quality RNA extracted from the seedlings that was used in subsequent microarray analyses. While the TROPI experiment had technical and logistical difficulties, most of the procedures worked well due to refinement during the project.     

Space Research Plan of China's Space Stationormalsize

China's manned spaceflight missions have been introduced briefly, and the research planning of space sciences for China's Space Station (CSS) has been presented with the topics in the research areas, including:life science and biotechnology, microgravity fluid physics and combustion science, space material science, fundamental physics, space astronomy and astrophysics, earth sciences and application, space physics and space environment, experiments of new space technology. The research facilities, experiment racks, and supporting system planned in CSS have been described, including:multifunctional optical facility, research facility of quantum and optic transmission, and a dozen of research racks for space sciences in pressurized module, etc. In the next decade, significant breakthroughs in space science and utilization will hopefully be achieved, and great contributions will be made to satisfy the need of the social development and people's daily life.      

Space Research Plan of China's Space Station

China's manned spaceflight missions have been introduced briefly,and the research planning of space sciences for China's Space Station(CSS) has been presented with the topics in the research areas,including:life science and biotechnology,microgravity fluid physics and combustion science,space material science,fundamental physics,space astronomy and astrophysics,earth sciences and application,space physics and space environment,experiments of new space technology.The research facilities,experiment racks,and supporting system planned in CSS have been described,including:multifunctional optical facility,research facility of quantum and optic transmission,and a dozen of research racks for space sciences in pressurized module,etc.In the next decade,significant breakthroughs in space science and utilization will hopefully be achieved,and great contributions will be made to satisfy the need of the social development and people's daily life.     

Life sciences flight hardware development for the International Space Station.

During the construction phase of the International Space Station (ISS), early flight opportunities have been identified (including designated Utilization Flights, UF) on which early science experiments may be performed. The focus of NASA's and other agencies' biological studies on the early flight opportunities is cell and molecular biology; with UF-1 scheduled to fly in fall 2001, followed by flights 8A and UF-3. Specific hardware is being developed to verify design concepts, e.g., the Avian Development Facility for incubation of small eggs and the Biomass Production System for plant cultivation. Other hardware concepts will utilize those early research opportunities onboard the ISS, e.g., an Incubator for sample cultivation, the European Modular Cultivation System for research with small plant systems, an Insect Habitat for support of insect species. Following the first Utilization Flights, additional equipment will be transported to the ISS to expand research opportunities and capabilities, e.g., a Cell Culture Unit, the Advanced Animal Habitat for rodents, an Aquatic Facility to support small fish and aquatic specimens, a Plant Research Unit for plant cultivation, and a specialized Egg Incubator for developmental biology studies. Host systems (Figure 1A, B: see text), e.g., a 2.5 m Centrifuge Rotor (g-levels from 0.01-g to 2-g) for direct comparisons between g and selectable g levels, the Life Sciences Glovebox for contained manipulations, and Habitat Holding Racks (Figure 1B: see text) will provide electrical power, communication links, and cooling to the habitats. Habitats will provide food, water, light, air and waste management as well as humidity and temperature control for a variety of research organisms. Operators on Earth and the crew on the ISS will be able to send commands to the laboratory equipment to monitor and control the environmental and experimental parameters inside specific habitats. Common laboratory equipment such as microscopes, cryo freezers, radiation dosimeters, and mass measurement devices are also currently in design stages by NASA and the ISS international partners.     

DISCOS - ESA''s database and information system characterising objects in space

This paper presents an overview of the main features of ESA's future space debris database DISCOS (Database and Information System Characterising Objects in Space). The DISCOS system has been developed around an ORACLE relational database management software by the University of Kent (UK) under an ESA contract. The DISCOS catalogue will be installed at ESOC, the European Space Operations Centre, and serve as a common ESA information system for the space debris environment.     

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

The James Webb Space Telescope is a 6.5 m, infrared space telescope designed to be launched in 2013 aboard an Ariane 5. The JWST program is a cooperative program with the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) managing the project for NASA. The prime contractor for JWST is Northrop Grumman Space Technology (NGST). JWST’s international partners are the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). JWST will address four major science themes: end of the dark ages: first light and reionization; the assembly of galaxies, the birth of stars and protoplanetary systems; and the formation of planetary systems and the origins of life. We discuss the design of the observatory and review recent progress on the JWST program.     

Studying the evolution of the hot universe with the X-ray evolving universe spectroscopy mission – XEUS

Europe is one of the major partners building the International Space Station (ISS) and European industry, together with ESA, is responsible for many station components including the Columbus Orbital Facility, the Automated Transport Vehicle, two connecting modules and the European Robotic Arm. Together with this impressive list of contributions there is a strong desire within the ESA Member States to benefit from this investment by utilizing the unique capabilities of the ISS to perform world-class science. XEUS is one of the astronomical applications being studied by ESA to utilize the capabilities of the ISS. XEUS will be a long-term X-ray observatory with an initial mirror area of 6 m² at 1 keV that will be expanded to 30 m² following a visit to the ISS. The 1 keV spatial resolution is expected to be 2–5″ half-energy-width. XEUS will consist of separate detector and mirror spacecraft (MSC) aligned by active control to provide a focal length of 50 m. A new detector spacecraft, complete with the next generation of instruments, will also be added after visiting the ISS. The limiting 0.1–2.5 keV sensitivity will then be 4 × 10⁻¹⁸ erg cm⁻² s⁻¹, around 200 times better than XMM-Newton, allowing XEUS to study the properties of the hot baryons and dark matter at high redshift.     

Multiwavelength astronomy using ESIS

We present results on multi-frequency astronomy obtained using the European Space Information System, ESIS. ESIS is an ESA service designed to access, manipulate and combine archival data from a number of remote archives in the fields of Astronomy and Space Physics. The examples presented here include plots of radio-to-X-ray energy distribution of Active Galactic Nuclei, spectrograms of IUE/UV data, direct comparison of images from different experiments and overlay of catalogue sources on image data. The ESIS project is currently reaching the end of its pilot phase. Its services will be available to the general astronomical community in 1993.     

Exobiology research on Space Station Freedom.

The Gas-Grain Simulation Facility (GGSF) is a multidisciplinary experiment laboratory being developed by NASA at Ames Research Center for delivery to Space Station Freedom in 1998. This facility will employ the low-gravity environment of the Space Station to enable aerosol experiments of much longer duration than is possible in any ground-based laboratory. Studies of fractal aggregates that are impossible to sustain on Earth will also be enabled. Three research areas within exobiology that will benefit from the GGSF are described here. An analysis of the needs of this research and of other suggested experiments has produced a list of science requirements which the facility design must accommodate. A GGSF design concept developed in the first stage of flight hardware development to meet these requirements is also described.     

Performance estimation for GEO space surveillance

For space surveillance Europe is currently strongly depending on external sources. Although some European radar and optical facilities for space object tracking exist, there is no operational European space surveillance system. An ESA-funded feasibility study for a future independent European space surveillance capability was performed recently. Some of the main conclusions are presented here. We discuss the surveillance of the geostationary ring (GEO) by evaluating existing and newly designed optical ground-based sensors in terms of their performance. The main performance-related issues – the coverage of the GEO ring and the minimum detectable objects size – are discussed. In order to perform detailed simulations, an observation strategy was defined and algorithms for the correlation of objects with a catalogue and for the maintenance of that catalogue were developed. We used the ESA PROOF software to estimate the sensor performance and AIUB tools to simulate the catalogue correlation. The performance was validated using data from campaigns performed with the ESA Space Debris Telescope at Tenerife, Spain.     

Improvements in and actual performance of the Plant Experiment Unit onboard Kibo,the Japanese experiment module on the international space station

In 2004, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency developed the engineered model of the Plant Experiment Unit and the Cell Biology Experiment Facility. The Plant Experiment Unit was designed to be installed in the Cell Biology Experiment Facility and to support the seed-to-seed life cycle experiment of Arabidopsis plants in space in the project named Space Seed. Ground-based experiments to test the Plant Experiment Unit showed that the unit needed further improvement of a system to control the water content of a seedbed using an infrared moisture analyzer and that it was difficult to keep the relative humidity inside the Plant Experiment Unit between 70 and 80% because the Cell Biology Experiment Facility had neither a ventilation system nor a dehumidifying system. Therefore, excess moisture inside the Cell Biology Experiment Facility was removed with desiccant bags containing calcium chloride. Eight flight models of the Plant Experiment Unit in which dry Arabidopsis seeds were fixed to the seedbed with gum arabic were launched to the International Space Station in the space shuttle STS-128 (17A) on August 28, 2009. Plant Experiment Unit were installed in the Cell Biology Experiment Facility with desiccant boxes, and then the Space Seed experiment was started in the Japanese Experiment Module, named Kibo, which was part of the International Space Station, on September 10, 2009 by watering the seedbed and terminated 2 months later on November 11, 2009. On April 19, 2010, the Arabidopsis plants harvested in Kibo were retrieved and brought back to Earth by the space shuttle mission STS-131 (19A). The present paper describes the Space Seed experiment with particular reference to the development of the Plant Experiment Unit and its actual performance in Kibo onboard the International Space Station. Downlinked images from Kibo showed that the seeds had started germinating 3 days after the initial watering. The plants continued growing, producing rosette leaves, inflorescence stems, flowers, and fruits in the Plant Experiment Unit. In addition, the senescence of rosette leaves was found to be delayed in microgravity.