Rheological and Thermal Properties of Icy Materials

Laboratory measurements of physical properties of planetary ices generate information for dynamical models of tectonically active icy bodies in the outer solar system. We review the methods for measuring both flow properties and thermal properties of icy planetary materials in the laboratory, and describe physical theories that are essential for intelligent extrapolation of data from laboratory to planetary conditions. This review is structured with a separate and independent section for each of the two sets of physical properties, rheological and thermal. The rheological behaviors of planetary ices are as diverse as the icy moons themselves. High-pressure water ice phases show respective viscosities that vary over four orders of magnitude. Ices of CO₂, NH₃, as well as clathrate hydrates of CH₄ and other gases vary in viscosity by nearly ten orders of magnitude. Heat capacity and thermal conductivity of detected/inferred compositions in outer solar system bodies have been revised. Some low-temperature phases of minerals and condensates have a deviant thermal behavior related to paramount water ice. Hydrated salts have low values of thermal conductivity and an inverse dependence of conductivity on temperature, similar to clathrate hydrates or glassy solids. This striking behavior may suit the dynamics of icy satellites.     

Characteristics of Icy Surfaces

The surfaces of the Solar System’s icy satellites show an extraordinary variety of morphological features, which bear witness to exchange processes between the surface and subsurface. In this paper we review the characteristics of surface features on the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Using data from spacecraft missions, we discuss the detailed morphology, size, and topography of cryovolcanic, tectonic, aeolian, fluvial, and impact features of both large moons and smaller satellites.     

Environments in the Outer Solar System

The outer planets of our solar system Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are fascinating objects on their own. Their intrinsic magnetic fields form magnetic environments (so called magnetospheres) in which charged and neutral particles and dust are produced, lost or being transported through the system. These magnetic environments of the gas giants can be envisaged as huge plasma laboratories in space in which electromagnetic waves, current systems, particle transport mechanisms, acceleration processes and other phenomena act and interact with the large number of moons in orbit around those massive planets. In general it is necessary to describe and study the global environments (magnetospheres) of the gas giants, its global configuration with its large-scale transport processes; and, in combination, to study the local environments of the moons as well, e.g. the interaction processes between the magnetospheric plasma and the exosphere/atmosphere/magnetosphere of the moon acting on time scales of seconds to days. These local exchange processes include also the gravity, shape, rotation, astrometric observations and orbital parameters of the icy moons in those huge systems. It is the purpose of this chapter of the book to describe the variety of the magnetic environments of the outer planets in a broad overview, globally and locally, and to show that those exchange processes can dramatically influence the surfaces and exospheres/atmospheres of the moons and they can also be used as a tool to study the overall physics of systems as a whole.     

Photochemistry in Outer Solar System Atmospheres

The photochemistries of the H₂-He atmospheres of the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn and ice giants Uranus and Neptune and Titan’s mildly reducing N₂ atmosphere are reviewed in terms of general chemical and physical principles. The thermochemical furnace regions in the deep atmospheres and the photochemical regions of the giant planets are coupled by vertical mixing to ensure efficient recyling of photochemical products. On Titan,mass loss of hydrogen ensures photochemical evolution of methane into less saturated hydrocarbons. A summary discussion of major dissociation paths and essential chemical reactions is given. The chapter ends with a overview of vertical transport processes in planetary atmospheres.     

Chemical Composition of Icy Satellite Surfaces

Much of our knowledge of planetary surface composition is derived from remote sensing over the ultraviolet through infrared wavelength ranges. Telescopic observations and, in the past few decades, spacecraft mission observations have led to the discovery of many surface materials, from rock-forming minerals to water ice to exotic volatiles and organic compounds. Identifying surface materials and mapping their distributions allows us to constrain interior processes such as cryovolcanism and aqueous geochemistry. The recent progress in understanding of icy satellite surface composition has been aided by the evolving capabilities of spacecraft missions, advances in detector technology, and laboratory studies of candidate surface compounds. Pioneers 10 and 11, Voyagers I and II, Galileo, Cassini and the New Horizons mission have all made significant contributions. Dalton (Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue) summarizes the major constituents found or inferred to exist on the surfaces of the icy satellites (cf. Table 1 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue), and the spectral coverage and resolution of many of the spacecraft instruments that have revolutionized our understanding (cf. Table 2 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue). While much has been gained from these missions, telescopic observations also continue to provide important constraints on surface compositions, especially for those bodies that have not yet been visited by spacecraft, such as Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), Centaurs, the classical planet Pluto and its moon, Charon. In this chapter, we will discuss the major satellites of the outer solar system, the materials believed to make up their surfaces, and the history of some of these discoveries. Formation scenarios and subsequent evolution will be described, with particular attention to the processes that drive surface chemistry and exchange with interiors. Major similarities and differences between the satellites are discussed, with an eye toward elucidating processes operating throughout the outer solar system. Finally we discuss the outermost satellites and other bodies, and summarize knowledge of their composition. Much of this review is likely to change in the near future with ongoing and planned outer planet missions, adding to the sense of excitement and discovery associated with our exploration of our planetary neighborhood.     

Radiolysis and Photolysis of Icy Satellite Surfaces: Experiments and Theory

The transport and exchange of material between bodies in the outer solar system is often facilitated by their exposure to ionizing radiation. With this in mind we review the effects of energetic ions, electrons and UV photons on materials present in the outer solar system. We consider radiolysis, photolysis, and sputtering of low temperature solids. Radiolysis and photolysis are the chemistry that follows the bond breaking and ionization produced by incident radiation, producing, e.g., O₂ and H₂ from irradiated H₂O ice. Sputtering is the ejection of molecules by incident radiation. Both processes are particularly effective on ices in the outer solar system. Materials reviewed include H₂O ice, sulfur-containing compounds (such as SO₂ and S₈), carbon-containing compounds (such as CH₄), nitrogen-containing compounds (such as NH₃ and N₂), and mixtures of those compounds. We also review the effects of ionizing radiation on a mixture of N₂ and CH₄ gases, as appropriate to Titan’s upper atmosphere, where radiolysis and photolysis produce complex organic compounds (tholins).     

用偏微分方程构造车身外形曲面

阐述了在给定边界条件及其他曲面限制因素的情况下,用偏微分方程构造曲面的基本理论;研究了引入曲面形状控制系数来控制生成曲面的形状以及应用于车身外形曲面设计的实现方法,并分析了该方法的特点,最后给出了在车身设计中应用的实例。     

Voyager 2 Solar Wind Observations in the Outer Heliosphere

We discuss the solar wind parameters measured in the distant heliosphere from the Voyager 2 spacecraft. Periodic variations in the speed of the wind observed at roughly the solar rotation period may correspond to interaction regions between slower and faster streams of wind. Since the interplanetary magnetic field is enhanced in such regions, they are important for the study of modulation of cosmic rays. Unfortunately, direct observation of the enhanced magnetic field from Voyager 2 has been made difficult by spacecraft-associated noise since 1989.     

The Solar Wind in the Outer Heliosphere and Heliosheath

The solar wind environment has a large influence on the transport of cosmic rays. This chapter discusses the observations of the solar wind plasma and magnetic field in the outer heliosphere and the heliosheath. In the supersonic solar wind, interaction regions with large magnetic fields form barriers to cosmic ray transport. This effect, the “CR-B” relationship, has been quantified and is shown to be valid everywhere inside the termination shock (TS). In the heliosheath, this relationship breaks down, perhaps because of a change in the nature of the turbulence. Turbulence is compressive in the heliosheath, whereas it was non-compressive in the solar wind. The plasma pressure in the outer heliosphere is dominated by the pickup ions which gain most of the flow energy at the TS. The heliosheath plasma and magnetic field are highly variable on scales as small as ten minutes. The plasma flow turns away from the nose roughly as predicted, but the radial speeds at Voyager 1 are much less than those at Voyager 2, which is not understood. Despite predictions to the contrary, magnetic reconnection is not an important process in the inner heliosheath with only one observed occurrence to date.     

Cometary Materials: Progress Toward Understanding the Composition in the Outer Solar Nebula

A major objective of the workshop was to learn about the chemical composition, physical structure, and thermodynamic conditions of the outer parts of the solar nebula where comets formed. Here we sum up what we have learned from years of research about the molecular constituents of comet comae primarily from in situ measurements of Comet 1P/Halley and remote sensing of Comets 1P/Halley, Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1), and Hyakutake (C/1996 B2). These three bright comets are presumably captured Oort cloud comets. We summarize the analyses of these data to predict the composition of comet nuclei and project them further to the composition, structure, and thermodynamic conditions in the nebula. Near-future comet missions are directed toward less active short-period Jupiter-family comets. Thus, future analyses will afford a better understanding of the diversity of these two major groups of comets and their respective regions of origin in the solar or presolar nebula. We conclude with recommendations for determining critical data needed to aid in further analyses. Results of the workshop provide new guidelines and constraints for modeling the solar nebula. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Global Properties of Solar Flares

This article broadly reviews our knowledge of solar flares. There is a particular focus on their global properties, as opposed to the microphysics such as that needed for magnetic reconnection or particle acceleration as such. Indeed solar flares will always remain in the domain of remote sensing, so we cannot observe the microscales directly and must understand the basic physics entirely via the global properties plus theoretical inference. The global observables include the general energetics—radiation in flares and mass loss in coronal mass ejections (CMEs)—and the formation of different kinds of ejection and global wave disturbance: the type II radio-burst exciter, the Moreton wave, the EIT “wave”, and the “sunquake” acoustic waves in the solar interior. Flare radiation and CME kinetic energy can have comparable magnitudes, of order 10³² erg each for an X-class event, with the bulk of the radiant energy in the visible-UV continuum. We argue that the impulsive phase of the flare dominates the energetics of all of these manifestations, and also point out that energy and momentum in this phase largely reside in the electromagnetic field, not in the observable plasma.     

带有损耗的高阻表面的反射特性

研究了带有损耗的高阻表面,使用HFSS电磁仿真软件仿真分析了电阻加载和有限电导率贴片高阻表面的反射特性,并对带有损耗的普通方形贴片与齿化贴片高阻抗表面的吸波效果进行了对比.仿真结果表明通过加载电阻或采用有限电导率贴片均可以在一定的频率范围内降低高阻表面的反射系数,采用齿化结构可以扩展有损耗的高阻表面的吸波带宽.     

太阳能火箭发动机聚光器设计研究

从工程实际出发对工程上常用的聚光器进行性能比较,可以得出适合太阳能火箭发动机(STP)的聚光器及其具有的性能优点。在研究此种聚光器设计方法的过程中,推导出相关公式和其中的关键技术,这对STP聚光器的工程设计具有重要的指导价值。     

Photoemission Phenomena in the Solar System

Much of what we know about the atmospheres of the planets and other bodies in the solar system comes from detection of photons over a wide wavelength range, from X-rays to radio waves. In this chapter, we present current information in various categories—measurements of the airglows of the terrestrial planets, the dayglows of the outer planets and satellites, aurora throughout the solar system, observations of cometary spectra, and the emission of X-rays from a variety of planetary bodies.     

Oxygen Isotopes in the Solar System

The oxygen three-isotope system has major advantages over the two-isotope systems of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen because different fractionation laws govern intraplanetary and interplanetary processes. This permits discriminating between solar nebular processes and parent-body processes. Oxygen isotopes also serve as a sensitive natural tracer for meteorite classification. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Interstellar Dust in the Solar System

The Ulysses spacecraft has been orbiting the Sun on a highly inclined ellipse almost perpendicular to the ecliptic plane (inclination 79°, perihelion distance 1.3 AU, aphelion distance 5.4 AU) since it encountered Jupiter in 1992. The in situ dust detector on board continuously measured interstellar dust grains with masses up to 10⁻¹³ kg, penetrating deep into the solar system. The flow direction is close to the mean apex of the Sun’s motion through the solar system and the grains act as tracers of the physical conditions in the local interstellar cloud (LIC). While Ulysses monitored the interstellar dust stream at high ecliptic latitudes between 3 and 5 AU, interstellar impactors were also measured with the in situ dust detectors on board Cassini, Galileo and Helios, covering a heliocentric distance range between 0.3 and 3 AU in the ecliptic plane. The interstellar dust stream in the inner solar system is altered by the solar radiation pressure force, gravitational focussing and interaction of charged grains with the time varying interplanetary magnetic field. We review the results from in situ interstellar dust measurements in the solar system and present Ulysses’ latest interstellar dust data. These data indicate a 30° shift in the impact direction of interstellar grains w.r.t. the interstellar helium flow direction, the reason of which is presently unknown.     

Effects of the External Environment on Icy Satellites

In order to understand the evolution of planetary satellite surfaces and atmospheres it is important to understand their external environments. In this paper we look at the interactions between plasma in planetary magnetospheres and satellite atmospheres responsible for the production and loss of atmospheric mass. We focus on the processes which take place in the tenuous atmospheres of the Galilean satellites and in the Enceladus water plume. We also review the impact histories of satellites in the outer solar system, and compare the record of impacts in the inner and outer solar system.     

Structural Failures in Light-weight Solar Cell Arrays under Thermal Cycling

Several different types of small silicon solar cell arrays mounted on lightweight honeycomb panels and on flexible substrates were subjected to long-term thermal cycling tests between -160 and 600C in dry nitrogen. Other tests included immersion in liquid nitrogen and vibration fatigue tests in excess of one million cycles. The arrays experienced a reduction in output caused by contact failure, fracture in the silicon and cover slide, and disintegration of the honeycomb. Failure modes caused by different cell and interconnect constructions are compared.