Temporal variation in the new proton belt created in March 1991 observed using the CREAM & CREDO experiments.

The Cosmic Radiation Environment & Activation Monitor (CREAM) was carried in high inclination (57.1 degrees) orbits on Shuttle missions STS-48 in September 1991 (altitude 570 km) and STS-53 (altitude 325 to 385 km) in December 1992. On both occasions the instrument observed an excess of counts due to protons of greater than 30 MeV in energy in the region off of South Africa where field lines of L=2.5 intersect low earth orbit. Meanwhile the Cosmic Radiation Environment and Dosimetry Experiment (CREDO) carried to 840 km, 98.7 degrees orbit on UOSAT-3 has continued to sample the high field portions of the L-shells around L = 2.5 from April 1990 until the present time. When careful subtraction of cosmic-ray contributions is made it can be seen that the March 91 enhancement persisted for approximately 8 months and explains the STS-48 observation. There would appear to have been a further increase produced by the 31 October 1992 flare event and seen by STS-53.     

Planetary environment protection ID no: F3.3-M.1.05 implications for the development of a network of surface stations on Mars.

The European Space Agency's studies of a Comet Nucleus Sample Return mission (ROSETTA) as its Planetary Cornerstone in its long-term programme 'Horizon 2000' and the Marsnet mission, a potential contribution of the Agency to an international network of surface stations on Mars, has revived the interest in the present state of Planetary Protection requirements. MARSNET was one of the four candidate missions selected in April 1991 for further Design Feasibility (Phase A) Studies. Furthermore, of all space agencies participating in planetary exploration activities only the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration had a well established Planetary Protection Policy on Viking and other relevant planetary missions, whereas ESA is considering the feasibility and potential impact of a planetary protection policy on its Marsnet mission, within the framework of a tight budgetary envelope applicable to ESA's medium (M) class missions. This paper will discuss in general terms the impact of Planetary Protection measures, its implications for Marsnet and the issues arising from this for the implementation of the mission in ESA's scientific programme.     

Central hemodynamics in a baboon model during microgravity induced by parabolic flight.

We developed a chronically instrumented nonhuman primate model (baboon) to evaluate the central cardiovascular responses to transient microgravity induced by parabolic flight. Instrumentation provided simultaneous recording of high fidelity (Ao) and pulmonary artery (PA) pressures, right and left ventricular and atrial pressures, Ao and PA blood flow velocities and vessel dimensions, ECG and pleural pressures. Four daily flights in 1991 and five in 1992 were flown with forty parabola per flight. Animals flown in 1991 were not controlled for volume status. Animals flown in 1992 were studied in one of three conditions: 1) volume depleted by furosemide (DH), 2) volume expanded by saline infusion (VE), and 3) euvolemic (EU, no intervention, used for echo only). Mean right atrial pressures (RAP) during 1991 flights had a variable early microgravity response: increases in n=3 and decrease in n=3 (supine) and increases in n=5, decreases in n=2 (upright). In 1992 flights, DH, upright and supine, changed -10 +/- 4.1 mmHg, -3.2 +/- 2.2 mmHg, respectively (p < .05) compared to the pull-up phase. In contrast, VE changed (from pull-up to microgravity) +13 +/- 1.5 mmHg and +4.25 +/- 2.9 mmHg (upright and supine, respectively, p < .05). EU increased with microgravity +6.9 +/- .9 mmHg (upright only). LAP responses were similar, but more variable. Finally, heart chamber areas paralleled pressure changes. Thus, right and left heart filling pressure changes with sudden entry into microgravity conditions were dependent on initial circulatory volume status and somewhat modified by position (supine vs upright).     

Tissue equivalent detector data obtained recently on Mir space station. Comparison with Solid State Detector data

Tissue equivalent and Solid State Detector (SSD) measurements of the radiation environment inside the Mir space station were performed during the Antares mission in 1992 and long period after it. Interesting results about radiation measurements show (a) the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) crossing, (b) the increase of radiation near the poles and (c) the effects of solar eruptions (the most important one occurring in early November 1992). These data give also information about the dose and the quality factor of the radiation received by the cosmonauts during different missions.     

Implementing planetary protection requirements for sample return missions.

NASA is committed to exploring space while avoiding the biological contamination of other solar system bodies and protecting the Earth against potential harm from materials returned from space. NASA's planetary protection program evaluates missions (with external advice from the US National Research Council and others) and imposes particular constraints on individual missions to achieve these objectives. In 1997 the National Research Council's Space Studies Board published the report, Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations, which reported advice to NASA on Mars sample return missions, complementing their 1992 report, The Biological Contamination of Mars Issues and Recommendations. Meanwhile, NASA has requested a new Space Studies Board study to address sample returns from bodies other than Mars. This study recognizes the variety of worlds that have been opened up to NASA and its partners by small, relatively inexpensive, missions of the Discovery class, as well as the reshaping of our ideas about life in the solar system that have been occasioned by the Galileo spacecraft's discovery that an ocean under the ice on Jupiter's moon Europa might, indeed, exist. This paper will report on NASA's planned implementation of planetary protection provisions based on these recent National Research Council recommendations, and will suggest measures for incorporation in the planetary protection policy of COSPAR.     

Two intense Forbush decreases of solar activity cycle 22

We study two intense Forbush decreases that occurred during two adjacent SOLTIP (Solar connection of Transient Interplanetary Processes) intervals; namely SOLTIP 1 (22–27 March 1991) and SOLTIP 2 (1–17 June 1991); galactic cosmic ray intensity at the depth of the second Forbush decrease was the lowest ever recorded since continuous monitoring by Climax neutron monitor began in 1951 (58% below the solar minimum value of 1954), indicating extreme conditions in the heliosphere that prevented galactic cosmic rays from reaching the Earth. These decreases were seen propagating in outer heliosphere by the deep space missions Voyagers 1, 2 and Pioneer 10, 11, with suitable time delays. We analyze hourly, pressure corrected, neutron monitor data from the global sites in both hemispheres, and muon telescopes located underground; they respond to 10–300 GV range of the galactic cosmic ray spectrum. This circumstance provides us an ideal opportunity to study the rigidity dependence of the amplitudes of the two Forbush decreases. In both cases the amplitude is found to be a power law in rigidity, with negative exponents.     

The comet rendezvous asteroid flyby mission

The Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) mission is the next step in the exploration of comets as well as the first of NASA's new generation of spacecraft for primitive body and outer-planet missions. If launched in September 1992, CRAF will fly by one or two asteroids en route to a rendezvous with P/Tempel 2 in December, 1996. The post-rendezvous mission profile includes: (1) a reconnaissance phase to assess the cometary environment and to determine the mass of the nucleus; (2) a nucleus observation phase, lasting over a year, with emphasis on determining the physical and chemical properties of the nucleus and the changes associated with the onset of cometary activity; and (3) a perihelion phase with emphasis on studying the nature and dynamics of the dust, gas, and plasma in the coma and tail.     

Analysis of coastal altimetry in the Mexican Caribbean

A reprocessing of sea-level anomalies (SLA) resulting from X-TRACK coastal altimetry was carried out for the ENVISAT (2002–2010) and TOPEX/POSEIDON-Jason (1992–2019) satellite missions in the coastal area of the Mexican Caribbean. This consisted of applying a tidal correction to coastal altimetry sea level observations. Harmonic analysis of five coastal tide gauge records was performed to estimate the most important tidal components of the area, resulting on M2, N2, O1, S2, K1, MF, and MM. The tidal signal was reconstructed with the seven tidal components using the TPXO9 model. The SLA signals corrected with the seven tidal components were validated with in situ data from coastal tide gauges. The validation showed that the TPXO9 tidal barotropic model (1/30° grid) used to reconstruct the tidal signal with the seven representative tidal components performed better than the FES2012 global model (1/16° grid) that uses 33 tidal components. The reprocessed SLAs showed clear seasonality with significant signals at 4, 6, and 12 months, with the annual signal being the dominant one. In the Mexican Caribbean coastal zone, oceanographic processes with different scales (from coastal to mesoscale) converge, showing their complexity in the different SLA signals observed. The aim of this work is to contribute to the analysis of coastal altimetry data and understanding the sea level variations in the Mexican Caribbean. This work is the first step in the implementation of methodologies that take advantage of coastal satellite altimetry in the Caribbean Sea.     

COMPTEL results on the 1.809 MeV gamma-ray line from the Galactic-center region

The COMPTEL experiment on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory is designed to image celestial gamma radiation in the energy range from 0.75–30 MeV within a field of view of 1 steradian. It can locate stronger point sources with an accuracy better than 0.5° and is capable of mapping diffuse emission as well. The Galactic-center region was observed by COMPTEL for several 2-week periods in 1991/1992. These observations show evidence for 1.8 MeV line emission along the Galactic disk (attributed to radioactive ²⁶Al), extending over at least 40 degrees in longitude.     

Planetary protection issues and the future exploration of Mars.

A primary scientific theme for the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) is the search for life, extant or extinct, on Mars. Because of this, concerns about Planetary Protection (PP), the prevention of biological cross-contamination between Earth and other planets during solar system exploration missions, have arisen. A recent workshop assessed the necessity for, and impact of, PP requirements on the unmanned and human missions to Mars comprising the SEI. The following ground-rules were adopted: 1) information needed for assessing PP issues must be obtained during the unmanned precursor mission phase prior to human landings; 2) returned Mars samples will be considered biologically hazardous until proven otherwise; 3) deposition of microbes on Mars and exposure of the crew to Martian materials are inevitable when humans land; and, 4) human landings are unlikely until it is demonstrated that there is no harmful effect of Martian materials on terrestrial life forms. These ground-rules dictated the development of a conservative PP strategy for precursor missions. Key features of the proposed strategy include: 1) for prevention of forward contamination, all orbiters will follow Mars Observer PP procedures for assembly, trajectory, and lifetime. All landers will follow Viking PP procedures for assembly, microbial load reduction, and bioshield; and, 2) for prevention of back contamination, all sample return missions will have PP requirements which include fail-safe sample sealing, breaking contact chain with the Martian surface, and containment and quarantine analysis in an Earth-based lab. In addition to deliberating on scientific and technical issues, the workshop made several recommendations for dealing with forward and back contamination concerns from non-scientific perspectives.     

Extreme starburst or central activity in X-ray luminous IRAS galaxies

ROSAT All Sky Survey observations of IRAS galaxies have revealed up to now a number of 10 optically non-Seyfert galaxies with X-ray (0.1–2.4) luminosities up to a few 10⁴³erg · s⁻¹ (Boller et al. 1992). The sources are brighter than previous detection limits of a few 10⁴¹erg · s⁻¹ as found by Stocke et al. (1991) or Green, Anderson and Ward (1992) for Einstein sources. The optical classification is based on follow-up observations which indicate clearly the non-Seyfert (LINER and HII region-like galaxies) nature. Our investigations reveal that galaxies classified as non-Seyferts on the basis of optical spectroscopy may reach exceptionally high X-ray luminosities which are similar to that of Seyfert galaxies. On the basis of the present observational material we suppose a hidden low luminosity AGN in the centre of these objects as the source of energy production. The objects are of interest when evaluating starburst versus central activity.     

A consensus approach to planetary protection requirements: recommendations for Mars lander missions.

Over the last several years, the nature of the surface conditions on the planet Mars, our knowledge of the growth capabilities of Earth organisms under extreme conditions, and future opportunities for Mars exploration have been under extensive review in the United States and elsewhere. As part of these examinations, in 1992 the US Space Studies Board made a series of recommendations to NASA on the requirements that should be implemented on future missions that will explore Mars. In particular, significant changes were recommended in the requirements for Mars landers, changes that significantly alleviated the burden of planetary protection implementation for these missions. In this paper we propose a resolution implementing this new set of recommendations, for adoption by COSPAR at its 30th meeting in Hamburg. We also discuss future directions and study areas for planetary protection, in light of changing plans for Mars exploration.     

Materials trade study for lunar/gateway missions.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) administrator has identified protection from radiation hazards as one of the two biggest problems of the agency with respect to human deep space missions. The intensity and strength of cosmic radiation in deep space makes this a 'must solve' problem for space missions. The Moon and two Earth-Moon Lagrange points near Moon are being proposed as hubs for deep space missions. The focus of this study is to identify approaches to protecting astronauts and habitats from adverse effects from space radiation both for single missions and multiple missions for career astronauts to these destinations. As the great cost of added radiation shielding is a potential limiting factor in deep space missions, reduction of mass, without compromising safety, is of paramount importance. The choice of material and selection of the crew profile play major roles in design and mission operations. Material trade studies in shield design over multi-segmented missions involving multiple work and living areas in the transport and duty phase of space mission's to two Earth-Moon co-linear Lagrange points (L1) between Earth and the Moon and (L2) on back side of the moon as seen from Earth, and to the Moon have been studied. It is found that, for single missions, current state-of-the-art knowledge of material provides adequate shielding. On the other hand, the choice of shield material is absolutely critical for career astronauts and revolutionary materials need to be developed for these missions. This study also provides a guide to the effectiveness of multifunctional materials in preparation for more detailed geometry studies in progress.     

Regional in situ validation of satellite altimeters: Calibration and cross-calibration results at the Corsican sites

The in situ validation of the satellite altimeter sea surface heights is generally performed either at a few local points directly flown over by the satellites or using the global tide gauge network. A regional in situ calibration method was developed by NOVELTIS in order to monitor the altimeter data quality in a perimeter of several hundred kilometres around a given in situ calibration site. The primary advantage of this technique is its applicability not only for missions flying over dedicated sites but also for missions on interleaved or non repetitive orbits. This article presents the altimeter bias estimates obtained with this method at the Corsican calibration site, for the Jason-1 mission on its nominal and interleaved orbits as well as for the Jason-2 and Envisat missions. The various regional bias estimates (8.2 cm and 7.4 cm for Jason-1 respectively on the nominal and interleaved orbits in Senetosa, 16.4 cm for Jason-2 in Senetosa and 47.0 cm for Envisat in Ajaccio, with an accuracy between 2.5 cm and 4 cm depending on the mission) are compared with the results obtained by the other in situ calibration teams. This comparison demonstrates the coherency at the centimetre level, the stability and the generic character of the method, which would also be of benefit to the new and future altimeter missions such as Cryosat-2, SARAL/AltiKa, Sentinel-3, Jason-3, Jason-CS.     

HUMEX, a study on the survivability and adaptation of humans to long-duration exploratory missions, part I: lunar missions.

The European Space Agency has recently initiated a study of the human responses, limits and needs with regard to the stress environments of interplanetary and planetary missions. Emphasis has been laid on human health and performance care as well as advanced life support developments including bioregenerative life support systems and environmental monitoring. The overall study goals were as follows: (i) to define reference scenarios for a European participation in human exploration and to estimate their influence on the life sciences and life support requirements; (ii) for selected mission scenarios, to critically assess the limiting factors for human health, wellbeing, and performance and to recommend relevant countermeasures; (iii) for selected mission scenarios, to critically assess the potential of advanced life support developments and to propose a European strategy including terrestrial applications; (iv) to critically assess the feasibility of existing facilities and technologies on ground and in space as testbeds in preparation for human exploratory missions and to develop a test plan for ground and space campaigns; (v) to develop a roadmap for a future European strategy towards human exploratory missions, including preparatory activities and terrestrial applications and benefits. This paper covers the part of the HUMEX study dealing with lunar missions. A lunar base at the south pole where long-time sunlight and potential water ice deposits could be assumed was selected as the Moon reference scenario. The impact on human health, performance and well being has been investigated from the view point of the effects of microgravity (during space travel), reduced gravity (on the Moon) and abrupt gravity changes (during launch and landing), of the effects of cosmic radiation including solar particle events, of psychological issues as well as general health care. Countermeasures as well as necessary research using ground-based test beds and/or the International Space Station have been defined. Likewise advanced life support systems with a high degree of autonomy and regenerative capacity and synergy effects were considered where bioregenerative life support systems and biodiagnostic systems become essential. Finally, a European strategy leading to a potential European participation in future human exploratory missions has been recommended.     

Balloon observations of temporal and spatial fluctuations in stratospheric conductivity

The first campaign of the Polar Patrol Balloon (PPB) experiment (1st-PPB) was carried out at Syowa Station in Antarctica during 1990–1991 and 1992–1993. Based on the results of the 1st-PPB experiment, the next campaign (2nd-PPB) was carried out in the austral summer of 2002–2003. This paper will present stratospheric conductivity results from the 2nd-PPB experiment. In that experiment, three balloons were launched for the purpose of upper atmosphere physics observation (three balloons). Payloads of these three flights were identical with each other, and were launched as close together in time as allowed by weather conditions to constitute a cluster of balloons during their flights. Such a “Balloon Cluster” is suitable to observe temporal evolution and spatial distribution of phenomena in the ionospheric regions and boundaries that the balloons traversed during their circumpolar trajectory. More than 20 days of simultaneous fair weather 3-axis electric field and stratospheric conductivity data were obtained at geomagnetic latitudes ranging from sub-auroral to the polar cap. Balloon separation varied from ∼60 to >1000 km. This paper will present stratospheric conductivity observations with emphasis on the temporal and spatial variations that were observed.     

Balloon support systems performance for the cosmic rays energetics and mass mission

The Ballooncraft Support Systems were developed by NASA Wallops Flight Facility for use on ULDB class balloon missions. The support systems have now flown two missions supporting the Cosmic Rays Energetics and Mass (CREAM) experiment. The first, CREAM I, flown in December 2004, was for a record breaking 41 days, 21 h, and the second flight flown in December 2005, was for 28 days, 9 h. These support systems provide CREAM with power, telecommunications, command, and data handling including flight computers, mechanical structures, thermal management, and attitude control to help ensure a successful scientific mission. This paper addresses the performance and success of these support systems over the two missions.     

日地L1点探测任务设计与结果分析

日地L1点是太阳观测任务的理想观测点,对于中国后续太阳观测任务具有重要意义,因此在嫦娥五号的拓展任务阶段设计并实施了中国首次日地L1点探测任务,通过在轨飞行验证了日地L1点转移轨道、环绕轨道设计的正确性,对日地L1点的测控链路环境、太阳辐照环境、三体动力学环境、空间辐射环境等飞行环境进行了探测和验证。轨道飞行和各项环境探测的结果与设计模型的预示结果之间比对一致性较好,通过在轨飞行数据验证了设计模型的正确性。各项试验获得了预期的技术成果,进一步丰富了嫦娥五号任务的成果产出,对中国后续深空探测任务和产品的设计具有重要借鉴意义。     

The LET spectrum and its uncertainty during the CRRES mission.

We present Linear Energy Transfer (LET) spectra calculated for the 1990-1991 CRRES mission using the galactic cosmic ray (GCR) and solar energetic particle (SEP) models developed for the CRRES/SPACERAD program and presented by Chen, et al. 1992 at this conference. We discuss how the spectra vary with changes in the galactic cosmic ray and solar energetic particle models. Finally, we illustrate the application and significance of these results by using them to predict single event upset event rates in a sample integrated circuit memory device, a 256 x 4-bit bipolar static RAM (93L422).     

航天测控网资源均衡分配的调度方法

研究了航天测控网资源集中管理、统一分配的工作模式,以及满足多星测控任务的测控网资源调度方法。提出了测控网均衡调度的方法。首先面向任务,将卫星测控任务按优先级划分,按最优分配的原则进行分配,使测控网能够支持的任务数量大;在此基础上,考虑测控站负荷和备份再进行优化,使测控网内各测控站的负荷均衡。相比其他方法,考虑了任务执行的成功概率,各测控站任务分配更均匀,便于测控网的管理。