Detectability of planetary characteristics in disk-averaged spectra. I: The Earth model

Over the next 2 decades, NASA and ESA are planning a series of space-based observatories to detect and characterize extrasolar planets. This first generation of observatories will not be able to spatially resolve the terrestrial planets detected. Instead, these planets will be characterized by disk-averaged spectroscopy. To assess the detectability of planetary characteristics in disk-averaged spectra, we have developed a spatially and spectrally resolved model of the Earth. This model uses atmospheric and surface properties from existing observations and modeling studies as input, and generates spatially resolved high-resolution synthetic spectra using the Spectral Mapping Atmospheric Radiative Transfer model. Synthetic spectra were generated for a variety of conditions, including cloud coverage, illumination fraction, and viewing angle geometry, over a wavelength range extending from the ultraviolet to the farinfrared. Here we describe the model and validate it against disk-averaged visible to infrared observations of the Earth taken by the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer, the ESA Mars Express Omega instrument, and ground-based observations of earthshine reflected from the unilluminated portion of the Moon. The comparison between the data and model indicates that several atmospheric species can be identified in disk-averaged Earth spectra, and potentially detected depending on the wavelength range and resolving power of the instrument. At visible wavelengths (0.4-0.9 microm) O3, H2O, O2, and oxygen dimer [(O2)2] are clearly apparent. In the mid-infrared (5-20 microm) CO2, O3, and H2O are present. CH4, N2O, CO2, O3, and H2O are visible in the near-infrared (1-5 microm). A comprehensive three-dimensional model of the Earth is needed to produce a good fit with the observations.     

Detectability of planetary characteristics in disk-averaged spectra II: synthetic spectra and light-curves of earth

Spatially and spectrally resolved models were used to explore the observational sensitivity to changes in atmospheric and surface properties and the detectability of surface biosignatures in the globally averaged spectra and light-curves of the Earth. Compared with previous efforts to characterize the Earth using disk-averaged models, a more comprehensive and realistic treatment of the surface and atmosphere was taken into account here. Our results are presented as a function of viewing geometry and phases at both visible/near-infrared (0.5-1.7 microm) and mid-infrared (5-25 microm) wavelength ranges, applicable to the proposed NASA-Terrestrial Planet Finder visible coronagraph and mid-infrared interferometer and to the ESADarwin mission architectures. Clouds can change the thermal emission by as much as 50% compared with the cloud-free case and increase the visible albedo by up to 500% for completely overcast cases at the dichotomy phase. Depending on the observed phase and their distribution and type, clouds can also significantly alter the spectral shape. Moreover, clouds impact the detectability of surface biosignatures in the visible wavelength range. Modeling the disk-averaged sensitivity to the "red-edge," a distinctive spectral signature of vegetation, showed that Earth's land vegetation could be seen in disk-averaged spectra, even with cloud cover, when the signal was averaged over the daily time scale. We found that vegetation is more readily discriminated from clouds at dichotomy (50% illumination) rather than at full phase. The detectability of phytoplankton was also explored, but was found to be more difficult to detect in the disk-average than land vegetation.     

Earth as an extrasolar planet: Earth model validation using EPOXI earth observations

The EPOXI Discovery Mission of Opportunity reused the Deep Impact flyby spacecraft to obtain spatially and temporally resolved visible photometric and moderate resolution near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopic observations of Earth. These remote observations provide a rigorous validation of whole-disk Earth model simulations used to better understand remotely detectable extrasolar planet characteristics. We have used these data to upgrade, correct, and validate the NASA Astrobiology Institute's Virtual Planetary Laboratory three-dimensional line-by-line, multiple-scattering spectral Earth model. This comprehensive model now includes specular reflectance from the ocean and explicitly includes atmospheric effects such as Rayleigh scattering, gas absorption, and temperature structure. We have used this model to generate spatially and temporally resolved synthetic spectra and images of Earth for the dates of EPOXI observation. Model parameters were varied to yield an optimum fit to the data. We found that a minimum spatial resolution of ～100 pixels on the visible disk, and four categories of water clouds, which were defined by using observed cloud positions and optical thicknesses, were needed to yield acceptable fits. The validated model provides a simultaneous fit to Earth's lightcurve, absolute brightness, and spectral data, with a root-mean-square (RMS) error of typically less than 3% for the multiwavelength lightcurves and residuals of ～10% for the absolute brightness throughout the visible and NIR spectral range. We have extended our validation into the mid-infrared by comparing the model to high spectral resolution observations of Earth from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder, obtaining a fit with residuals of ～7% and brightness temperature errors of less than 1?K in the atmospheric window. For the purpose of understanding the observable characteristics of the distant Earth at arbitrary viewing geometry and observing cadence, our validated forward model can be used to simulate Earth's time-dependent brightness and spectral properties for wavelengths from the far ultraviolet to the far infrared. Key Words: Astrobiology-Extrasolar terrestrial planets-Habitability-Planetary science-Radiative transfer. Astrobiology 11, 393-408.     

大气成分探测红外光谱仪系统指标分析

由温室气体引起的全球气候变化和环境污染已经受到全世界的广泛关注。进行大气成分探测,对于更好地了解温室效应产生的细节、大气分子的光化学性质对臭氧层的影响以及大气污染机制都具有重要意义。由于大气成分种类较多,其红外吸收光谱密集且复杂,因此大气成分探测仪器需要有较高的光谱分辨能力和信噪比。文章进行了大气成分探测的总体指标需求分析,并据此确定了大气成分探测红外光谱仪的主要技术指标。为了满足指标要求,该光谱仪采用傅里叶变换红外光谱仪的总体方案。通过仪器性能影响因素分析和系统优化,使得该仪器的最终设计结果满足指标要求。     

Possibilities for the detection of microbial life on extrasolar planets

We consider possibilities for the remote detection of microbial life on extrasolar planets. The Darwin/Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) telescope concepts for observations of terrestrial planets focus on indirect searches for life through the detection of atmospheric gases related to life processes. Direct detection of extraterrestrial life may also be possible through well-designed searches for microbial life forms. Satellites in Earth orbit routinely monitor colonies of terrestrial algae in oceans and lakes by analysis of reflected ocean light in the visible region of the spectrum. These remote sensing techniques suggest strategies for extrasolar searches for signatures of chlorophylls and related photosynthetic compounds associated with life. However, identification of such life-related compounds on extrasolar planets would require observations through strong, interfering absorptions and scattering radiances from the remote atmospheres and landmasses. Techniques for removal of interfering radiances have been extensively developed for remote sensing from Earth orbit. Comparable techniques would have to be developed for extrasolar planet observations also, but doing so would be challenging for a remote planet. Darwin/TPF coronagraph concepts operating in the visible seem to be best suited for searches for extrasolar microbial life forms with instruments that can be projected for the 2010-2020 decades, although resolution and signal-to-noise ratio constraints severely limit detection possibilities on terrestrial-type planets. The generation of telescopes with large apertures and extremely high spatial resolutions that will follow Darwin/TPF could offer striking possibilities for the direct detection of extrasolar microbial life.     

用于遥感光谱探测的干涉成像光谱技术

由于干涉成像光谱仪具有高通量、高光谱分辨率和光谱多通道等优点 ,成为超光谱分辨率遥感方面的研究热点 ,文章简要分析了国内外的研究现状和干涉成像光谱仪的应用前景 ,主要介绍时间调制型干涉成像光谱仪和基于变形Sagnac干涉仪、双折射棱镜及Savart板等空间调制型的干涉成像光谱仪的形式、原理和特点 ,分析了其光学结构和影响光谱分辨率的因素。     

Spectral properties of Lake Superior banded iron formation: application to Martian hematite deposits

Several locations have been identified on Mars that expose bulk, coarsely crystalline gray hematite. These deposits have been interpreted as being sedimentary and formed in aqueous environments. Lake Superior Type (LST) banded iron formation (BIF) was investigated as a spectral and possible process analog to these deposits. In northern Michigan, LST BIF formed in a sedimentary, continental shelf or shallow basin environment under stable tectonic conditions, and the oxide facies contains gray, crystalline hematite. These deposits are Proterozoic in age and contain microfossils associated with the early diversification of life on Earth. Samples of the hematite-bearing oxide facies, as well as the carbonate facies, were collected and analyzed for their spectral and geochemical characteristics. Sample spectra were measured in the visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared for comparison with remote and in situ spectra obtained at Mars. Thin section analysis, as well as X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy measurements, were performed to determine detailed geochemistry. There is no evidence for BIF at Opportunity's Meridiani landing site, and the results of this work will provide useful data for determining whether BIFs exist elsewhere on Mars and are, thus, relevant to current and future Mars exploration missions.     

火星表面热辐射环境模拟

为了对火星表面的热辐射环境进行模拟,以辅助火星探测等任务,建立了火星大气的一维模型和土壤的一维导热模型,并与NASA的一维火星大气辐射程序相结合,得到了一套整体模拟系统。模拟获得了火星地表温度及接收到的可见光、红外辐射热流密度,分析了季节、纬度、尘暴、云层的变化对地表温度和所受太阳辐射造成的影响。模拟结果表明,纬度和季节的变化影响着太阳高度角和日照时长等因素,进而对可见光辐射造成显著影响;尘埃光学厚度的增加会削弱可见光辐射并增强红外辐射,云层光学性质的改变造成的影响与之相似但较小;四者的改变都会对地表的温度及接收到的太阳辐射热流密度造成不同程度的影响。     

Remote sensing of planetary properties and biosignatures on extrasolar terrestrial planets

The major goals of NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and the European Space Agency's Darwin missions are to detect terrestrial-sized extrasolar planets directly and to seek spectroscopic evidence of habitable conditions and life. Here we recommend wavelength ranges and spectral features for these missions. We assess known spectroscopic molecular band features of Earth, Venus, and Mars in the context of putative extrasolar analogs. The preferred wavelength ranges are 7-25 microns in the mid-IR and 0.5 to approximately 1.1 microns in the visible to near-IR. Detection of O2 or its photolytic product O3 merits highest priority. Liquid H2O is not a bioindicator, but it is considered essential to life. Substantial CO2 indicates an atmosphere and oxidation state typical of a terrestrial planet. Abundant CH4 might require a biological source, yet abundant CH4 also can arise from a crust and upper mantle more reduced than that of Earth. The range of characteristics of extrasolar rocky planets might far exceed that of the Solar System. Planetary size and mass are very important indicators of habitability and can be estimated in the mid-IR and potentially also in the visible to near-IR. Additional spectroscopic features merit study, for example, features created by other biosignature compounds in the atmosphere or on the surface and features due to Rayleigh scattering. In summary, we find that both the mid-IR and the visible to near-IR wavelength ranges offer valuable information regarding biosignatures and planetary properties; therefore both merit serious scientific consideration for TPF and Darwin.     

共轭梯度算法在振动信号处理中的应用

为了提高液体火箭发动机试验振动信号频域数据处理的精度,提出了一种基于共轭梯度和AR模型的谱估计算法。该算法计算复杂度低,估计出的谱分辨率高,可以克服传统的经典傅里叶变换功率谱估计算法在信号信噪比降低时不能有效区分相近频率点谱线的问题,解决了传统算法旁瓣泄漏严重的固有缺点。通过对算法在不同信噪比条件下的仿真实验分析与真实试验数据验证,充分表明了此算法在低信噪比条件下,估计的谱仍具有高分辨率的特点。     

卫星光学遥感器光谱波段选择的影响因素

文章详细阐述了大气对太阳辐射在可见光 -近红外段的吸收作用和散射作用 ,并总结了可见光 -近红外波段常用的大气窗口及其透射率 ,最后 ,分析了可见光、近红外、短波红外的波段选择问题     

火星探测器降落伞拉直过程中的“绳帆”现象研究

针对火星探测器降落伞在拉直过程中出现的“绳帆”现象,以及火星探测器降落伞开伞前初始参数和大气密度与地球环境下的差异,建立了火星探测器降落伞拉直过程的数学模型,研究了火星环境下,伞包弹射速度、开伞前进入器的攻角、开伞马赫数以及大气密度对“绳帆”现象的影响。研究结果表明,选择较大的伞包弹射速度,并将开伞前进入器的攻角严格限定在较小范围内,将有利于避免或降低“绳帆”现象的发生。这一研究结果可为我国实施火星探测时减速着陆系统的设计分析提供一定参考。     

空间大气成分探测傅立叶变换红外光谱仪

文章阐述了用于空间大气成分探测傅立叶变换红外光谱仪的国外发展状况,主要介绍了几种国外先进的高分辨率空间大气探测用傅立叶变换红外光谱仪的结构、应用范围和技术指标,比较了这几种设备的优缺点和技术特点。     

中国上空过渡流区大气月平均状态的模拟结果

利用美国海军研究实验室在MSIS系列模型基础上发展的大气模型NRLMSISE-00, 模拟研究了2001年—2013年中国上空过渡流区80～140 km高度的大气状态。对于中国东部和中部过渡流区, 基于模拟数据得到的月平均结果显示大气密度和温度呈现一致的变化趋势, 还表现出与太阳活动的显著关联。谱分析的结果显示, 在90 km高度以上大气密度呈现半年周期变化, 在90～110 km高度范围这种半年变化的幅度随纬度增大。在100 km高度, 上半年出现的半年周期过程中密度的最大、最小值分别出现在3月和6月, 明显超前中、高热层的半年周期过程。     

Selected configuration tradeoffs of contour optical instruments

The Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR) is a low-cost NASA Discovery mission designed to conduct three close flybys of comet nuclei. Selected configuration tradeoffs conducted to balance science requirements with low mission cost are reviewed. The tradeoffs discussed focus on the optical instruments and related spacecraft considerations. Two instruments are under development. The CONTOUR Forward Imager (CFI) is designed to perform optical navigation, moderate resolution nucleus/jet imaging, and imaging of faint molecular emission bands in the coma. The CONTOUR Remote Imager and Spectrometer (CRISP) is designed to obtain high-resolution multispectral images of the nucleus, conduct spectral mapping of the nucleus surface, and provide a backup optical navigation capability.Tradeoffs discussed are: (1) the impact on the optical instruments of not using reaction wheels on the spacecraft, (2) the improved performance and simplification gained by implementing a dedicated star tracker instead of including this function in CFI, (3) the improved flexibility and robustness of switching to a low frame rate tracker for CRISP, (4) the improved performance and simplification of replacing a visible imaging spectrometer by enhanced multispectral imaging in CRISP, and (5) the impact on spacecraft resources of these and other tradeoffs.     

月球（火星）中子（水冰）探测仪初步方案研究

中子（水冰）探测仪在月球、火星和太阳系其它天体的水冰存在和含量分布的探测中有重要应用。文章主要介绍了美国、俄罗斯等国在月球、火星水冰探测中的中子探测仪的使用情况和探测结果,以及搭载于奥德赛（Odyssey）火星探测器上的中子谱仪、高能中子探测仪和＂月球勘测轨道器＂（LRO）上的月球勘测中子探测仪、计划搭载于美国＂火星科学实验室＂（MSL）上的中子反射动能测量仪的主要原理。最后提出了我国的一种中子探测仪的初步方案设想。     

Properties of an Earth-like planet orbiting a Sun-like star: Earth observed by the EPOXI mission

NASA's EPOXI mission observed the disc-integrated Earth and Moon to test techniques for reconnoitering extrasolar terrestrial planets, using the Deep Impact flyby spacecraft to observe Earth at the beginning and end of Northern Hemisphere spring, 2008, from a range of ～1/6 to 1/3 AU. These observations furnish high-precision and high-cadence empirical photometry and spectroscopy of Earth, suitable as "ground truth" for numerically simulating realistic observational scenarios for an Earth-like exoplanet with finite signal-to-noise ratio. Earth was observed at near-equatorial sub-spacecraft latitude on 18-19 March, 28-29 May, and 4-5 June (UT), in the range of 372-4540?nm wavelength with low visible resolving power (λ/Δλ=5-13) and moderate IR resolving power (λ/Δλ=215-730). Spectrophotometry in seven filters yields light curves at ～372-948?nm filter-averaged wavelength, modulated by Earth's rotation with peak-to-peak amplitude of ≤20%. The spatially resolved Sun glint is a minor contributor to disc-integrated reflectance. Spectroscopy at 1100-4540?nm reveals gaseous water and carbon dioxide, with minor features of molecular oxygen, methane, and nitrous oxide. One-day changes in global cloud cover resulted in differences between the light curve beginning and end of ≤5%. The light curve of a lunar transit of Earth on 29 May is color-dependent due to the Moon's red spectrum partially occulting Earth's relatively blue spectrum. The "vegetation red edge" spectral contrast observed between two long-wavelength visible/near-IR bands is ambiguous, not clearly distinguishing between the verdant Earth diluted by cloud cover versus the desolate mineral regolith of the Moon. Spectrophotometry in at least one other comparison band at short wavelength is required to distinguish between Earth-like and Moon-like surfaces in reconnaissance observations. However, measurements at 850?nm alone, the high-reflectance side of the red edge, could be sufficient to establish periodicity in the light curve and deduce Earth's diurnal period and the existence of fixed surface units.     

The biological terraforming of Mars: planetary ecosynthesis as ecological succession on a global scale

Mars is bitterly cold and dry, but robotic spacecraft have returned abundant data that indicate Mars once had a much warmer and wetter climate in the past. These data, the basis of the search for past or present life on Mars, suggest the possibility of returning Mars to its previous climate by global engineering techniques. Greenhouse gases, such as perfluorocarbons, appear to be the best method for warming Mars and increasing its atmospheric density so that liquid water becomes stable. The process of making Mars habitable for terrestrial organisms is called terraforming or planetary ecosynthesis. The process of introducing terrestrial ecosystems to Mars can be compared with a descent down a high mountain. Each drop in elevation results in a warmer, wetter climate and more diverse biological community. Beginning with a polar desert, the sequence of ecosystems passes through tundra, boreal forest, and temperate ecosystems where moisture determines the presence of desert, grassland, or forest. This model suggests a sequence for the introduction of ecosystems to Mars and the communities to search for potential colonizing species for Mars.     

The modular optelectronic multispectral scanner system for spaceborne remote sensing

A multispectral scanner system for spaceborne remote sensing of land and coastal/ocean features is under development for the German Ministry for Research and Technology. The system is based on the use of multilinear detector arrays for visible and infrared spectral bands.The electronically scanning image system MOMS (Modular Optoelectronical Multispectral Scanner) consists of individual spectral channel modules which can be grouped to dedicated mission tasks. Those dedicated tasks are land surface thematic mapping, sea or vegetation monitoring and in a stereo mode conventional photo interpretation and mapping.The basic performance data would allow up to 10,000 pixels per scan line, corresponding to about 20 m resolution at 200 km swath width out of observation satellite altitudes with narrower spectral bands than used on the current systems. High spectral resolution (up to 20 nm) is feasible at medium spatial resolution (～ 60 m).An experimental airborne scanner has been successfully flown in spring 1978. High-resolution modules development in the visible/NIR is under way and will be flight tested in early 1981.