A roadmap to cave dwelling on the Moon and Mars

Habitat in lava tubes recently discovered on the Moon and Mars, should become a unifying concept for occupancy. Basic motivations and specifications for such a habitat are briefly reviewed.     

Gravitational wave detection on the Moon and the moons of Mars

The Moon and the moons of Mars should be extremely quiet seismically and could therefore become sensitive gravitational wave detectors, if instrumented properly. Highly sensitive displacement sensors could be deployed on these planetary bodies to monitor the motion induced by gravitational waves. A superconducting displacement sensor with a 10-kg test mass cooled to 2 K will have an intrinsic instrument noise of 10⁻¹⁶ m Hz^−1/2. These sensors could be tuned to the lowest two quadrupole modes of the body or operated as a wideband detector below its fundamental mode. An interesting frequency range is 0.1–1 Hz, which will be missed by both the ground detectors on the Earth and LISA and would be the best window for searching for stochastic background gravitational waves. Phobos and Deimos have their lowest quadrupole modes at 0.2–0.3 Hz and could offer a sensitivity h_min ? 10⁻²² Hz^−1/2 within their resonance peaks, which is within two orders of magnitude from the goal of the Big Bang Observer (BBO). The lunar and Martian moon detectors would detect many interesting foreground sources in a new frequency window and could serve as a valuable precursor for BBO.     

Four-month Moon and Mars crew water utilization study conducted at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station,Devon Island,Nunavut

A categorized water usage study was undertaken at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station on Devon Island, Nunavut in the High Canadian Arctic. This study was conducted as part of a long duration four-month Mars mission simulation during the summer of 2007. The study determined that the crew of seven averaged 82.07 L/day over the expedition (standard deviation 22.58 L/day). The study also incorporated a Mars Time Study phase which determined that an average of 12.12 L/sol of water was required for each crewmember. Drinking, food preparation, hand/face, oral, dish wash, clothes wash, shower, shaving, cleaning, engineering, science, plant growth and medical water were each individually monitored throughout the detailed study phases. It was determined that implementing the monitoring program itself resulted in an approximate water savings of 1.5 L/day per crewmember. The seven person crew averaged 202 distinct water draws a day (standard deviation 34) with high water use periods focusing around meal times. No statistically significant correlation was established between total water use and EVA or exercise duration. Study results suggest that current crew water utilization estimates for long duration planetary surface stays are more than two times greater than that required.     

Neutral atmosphere and crustal magnetization as factors determining differences in plasma convection and magnetic fields distribution in the ionospheres of Mars and Venus

The pattern of the magnetic field/plasma convection can be, to some extent, recovered from the magnetic field measurements by employing either theoretical or numerical models. We use the MAG/ER day-time measurements of the magnetic field at the altitudes from 90 to 180 km during the elliptical orbits of MGS. Analysis of the altitude variation of the characteristics of the large-scale magnetic fields, which were measured some distance away from strong crustal magnetic anomalies, is summarized. The low density of the Martian atmosphere together with the crustal magnetization result in critical differences in plasma convection which are followed by remarkable differences of the magnetic field features within the ionosphere of Venus and Mars (even in its northern hemisphere where the crustal magnetization is, on the average, low) and distribution of currents.     

Next-generation electromagnetic sounding of the Moon

Electromagnetic (EM) sounding of the Moon, largely performed during the Apollo program, provided constraints on core size, mantle composition, and interior temperature. We present new analytical and numerical models that demonstrate the abilities of a next generation of EM sounding to (1) determine the electrical structure of the outermost 500 km and its lateral variability, specifically to understand the extent of upper-mantle discontinuities and the structure of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane; (2) determine the temperature and composition of the lower mantle; and (3) better constrain core size. New EM sounding need not rely on the Apollo methodology, which analyzed the magnetic transfer function between a surface station and a distantly orbiting satellite. Instead, a network of magnetometers (as few as two) can be used, or a complete sounding can be performed from a single station by measuring both electric and magnetic fields. Furthermore, in the magnetotail or lunar wake, sensors can operate from orbit, at altitudes up to the desired investigation depth. The twin-spacecraft ARTEMIS mission will test these methods and a lunar geophysical network will provide definitive results.     

Space-radiation-induced photon luminescence of the Moon

We report on the results of a continuing study of the photon luminescence of the Moon induced by Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and space radiation from the Sun, using the Monte Carlo program FLUKA. Understanding the space radiation environment is critical to future exploration of the Moon, and this includes photons. The model of the lunar surface is taken to be the chemical composition of soils found at various landing sites during the Apollo and Luna programs, averaged over all such sites to define a generic regolith for the present analysis. This surface model then becomes the target that is bombarded by Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) and Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) or Solar Particle Events (SPEs) above 1 keV in FLUKA to determine the photon fluence albedo produced by the Moon’s surface when there is no sunlight and Earthshine. The result is to be distinguished from the gamma-ray spectrum produced by the radioactive decay of radiogenic constituents lying in the surface and interior of the Moon. From the photon fluence we derive the spectrum which can be utilized to examine existing lunar spectral data and to aid future orbiting instrumentation in the measurement of various components of the space-radiation-induced photon luminescence present on the Moon.     

月球表面太空风化作用及其效应

太空风化作用普遍发生在月球、小行星等一些无大气层的天体表面, 主要包括太阳风离子辐射和微陨石撞击等作用. 通过对真实月球样品太空风化作用的研究成果以及低能离子和激光照射等地面模拟实验结果的系统综述和分析, 重点分析了月壤颗粒中非晶质层和纳米铁的成因, 指出太空风化研究中存在的太阳风离子辐射和微陨石撞击贡献难以区分及模拟实验模拟效果尚不充分的问题.进而提出月球太空风化研究不能简单套用其他天体的模型, 并建议未来开展更多月球和陨石样品的精细化学分析.      

多层月球模型的自转动力学与着陆探测

着重于寻找月核证据并将月核模型引入月球天平动理论中,探讨如何将多种空间探测技术应用于毫角秒精度的月球天平动观测,进而测定液态和固态月核参量。通过讨论多层月球的月球物理参数、流体核的几何与动力学椭率、松散黏滞的月幔,可获得月球相关详细信息与参量,这些参量对评估多层结构的月球自由天平动很重要。物理天平动的解析理论还可应用于未来多种月球工作中,期望在近代月球科学研究基础上能有进一步发展。     

Prospects in the orbital and rotational dynamics of the Moon with the advent of sub-centimeter lunar laser ranging

Lunar laser ranging (LLR) measurements are crucial for advanced exploration of the laws of fundamental gravitational physics and geophysics as well as for future human and robotic missions to the Moon. The corner-cube reflectors (CCR) currently on the Moon require no power and still work perfectly since their installation during the project Apollo era. Current LLR technology allows us to measure distances to the Moon with a precision approaching 1 mm. As NASA pursues the vision of taking humans back to the Moon, new, more precise laser ranging applications will be demanded, including continuous tracking from more sites on Earth, placing new CCR arrays on the Moon, and possibly installing other devices such as transponders, etc. for multiple scientific and technical purposes. Since this effort involves humans in space, then in all situations the accuracy, fidelity, and robustness of the measurements, their adequate interpretation, and any products based on them, are of utmost importance. Successful achievement of this goal strongly demands further significant improvement of the theoretical model of the orbital and rotational dynamics of the Earth–Moon system. This model should inevitably be based on the theory of general relativity, fully incorporate the relevant geophysical processes, lunar librations, tides, and should rely upon the most recent standards and recommendations of the IAU for data analysis. This paper discusses methods and problems in developing such a mathematical model. The model will take into account all the classical and relativistic effects in the orbital and rotational motion of the Moon and Earth at the sub-centimeter level. The model is supposed to be implemented as a part of the computer code underlying NASA Goddard’s orbital analysis and geophysical parameter estimation package GEODYN and the ephemeris package PMOE 2003 of the Purple Mountain Observatory. The new model will allow us to navigate a spacecraft precisely to a location on the Moon. It will also greatly improve our understanding of the structure of the lunar interior and the nature of the physical interaction at the core–mantle interface layer. The new theory and upcoming millimeter LLR will give us the means to perform one of the most precise fundamental tests of general relativity in the solar system.     

基于自适应预测校正的月球软着陆制导控制方法

应用自适应预测制导方法,研究月球软着陆过程中的制导控制问题。作为一种具有逻辑结构的构造性方法,本文概述了自适应预测制导方法的实现步骤。针对月球软着陆过程中制导控制量少于被控制量这一“欠驱动”问题,在已有的基于一阶特征模型的全系数自适应预测校正方法的基础上,将输入输出相等的系统拓展为输入少于输出的“欠驱动”系统,以满足对位置、速度矢量同时进行制导控制的需要。本文针对初始状态误差、推力偏差、质量偏差以及比冲偏差下的软着陆过程,进行了Monte Carlo仿真分析,结果表明,自适应预测制导方法可有效用于月球软着陆过程的制导控制,且具有较高的精度和较强的鲁棒性。     

Journey to the Moon: Recent results,science, future robotic and human exploration

The upcoming fleet of lunar missions, and the announcement of new lunar exploration initiatives, show an exciting “Journey to the Moon”, covering recent results, science, future robotic and human exploration. We review some of the questions, findings and perspectives given in the papers included in this issue of Advances in Space Research.     

Understanding the mineralogy of a compositional anomaly north of the Korolev basin using Moon mineralogy mapper

The work attempts to understand the mineralogy of the reported geochemical anomaly located in the north – northeast region of the Korolev basin using Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M³) onboard Chandrayaan ?1 and other lunar datasets. To understand the mineralogy, colour composite images using integrated band depth parameters and mineral indices were prepared, and the M³ spectral signatures corresponding to the unique colours of these colours composites were investigated. Further, Modified Gaussian Model (MGM) deconvolution was applied to these spectra. The results of spectra studies reveal that the area is made up of heterogeneous lithologies, predominantly composed of anorthosite along with minor occurrences of pyroxene-bearing (both low-calcium and high-calcium variety) and spinel-bearing lithologies. Correlation of spectral studies with the morphology revealed that pyroxene was typically associated with fresh craters and their ejecta. Spinel was found to be ubiquitous and is well-dispersed, possibly distributed along with the ejecta blanket of large impact craters. This association hints that the pyroxene-hosted layer most likely occurs beneath the spinel-bearing layer. Such observed assemblages may have resulted from physical mixing during the impact cratering events. This mixed lithology could arise due to the mafic mineral-bearing ejecta of the South-Pole Aitken (SPA) basin and spinel-bearing Orientale ejecta. Korolev most likely impacted on a thick layer of SPA ejecta, and impact basins such as Hertzsprung and Orientale have occurred post-Korolev formation. Orientale being the youngest of the large impact basins, its ejecta carrying the light plain material would have overprinted the older SPA ejecta. Smaller impact craters would have churned the ejecta so that presently we observe a composite lithology with a variable abundance of pyroxene and spinel.     

New findings and appraisal of structural control on polygonal impact crater rim-geometry,a study from Mare Fecunditatis,Moon

Polygonal Impact Craters (PICs), having a distinct polygonal rim geometry, are common on terrestrial planets, their natural satellites such as Earth’s Moon and the asteroids. The straight segments of PIC-rims are arguably subparallel or oblique to existing fracture/fault planes in their vicinity, and such pre-existing structural weak planes are considered responsible for the shape of the PICs. The Mare Fecunditatis, a lunar maria, preserves mappable PICs as well as different geomorphic features like wrinkle ridges, grabens and pit crater chains which owe their origin to either compressional or extensional faulting. To understand the structural control, if any, on the PIC-rim geometry in Mare Fecunditatis, PICs, both simple and complex, and the deformational features are mapped, superposition relations between them are observed and trends are compared. The comparison between frequency of rim segment trends of the two types of PICs with wrinkle ridges, grabens and pit crater chains, and also statistical correlation between them, interestingly indicate that the wrinkle ridges and grabens are found to have negligible or no influence on the rim geometry of the PICs. Wrinkle ridges, known to be a group of the Mare Fecunditatis' oldest deformation features, are older than most of the preserved craters and are likely to have had control over the PIC shape. However, lack of correlation between the trends of wrinkle ridges and PIC rims indicates that most of the craters were formed after the fractures beneath the old wrinkle ridges ceased to act as mechanical discontinuity planes due to possible induration caused by fracture-filling through concomitant and later magma injection. The PICs dispersed throughout the maria could have avoided the influence of the grabens, the majority of which are located near the margin of the maria. Pit crater chains with possible deep roots and still/recently continued dike activities, were the only available weak planes which could influence the PIC rim shapes.     

Scientific objectives and specification of the SELENE Multiband Imager

The Lunar Imager/SpectroMeter (LISM) is an instrument being developed for onboarding the SELENE satellite that will be launched in 2007. The LISM consists of the three subsystems: Terrain Camera (TC), Multiband Imager (MI), and Spectral Profiler (SP).     

Hybrid simulations of the O ion escape from Venus: Influence of the solar wind density and the IMF x component

As an initial effort to study the evolution of the Venus atmosphere, the influence of the solar wind density and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) x component (the x-axis points from Venus towards the Sun) on the O⁺ ion escape rate from Venus is investigated using a three-dimensional quasi-neutral hybrid (HYB-Venus) model. The HYB-Venus model is first applied to a case of the high-density (100 cm⁻³) solar wind interaction with Venus selected from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter observations to demonstrate its capability for the study. Two sets of simulations with a wide range of solar wind densities and different IMF x components are then performed. It is found that the O⁺ ion escape rate increases with increasing solar wind density. The O⁺ ion escape rate saturates when the solar wind density becomes high (above 100 cm⁻³). The results also suggest that the IMF x component enhances the O⁺ ion escape rate, given a fixed IMF component perpendicular to the x-axis. Finally, the results imply a higher ion loss rate for early-Venus, when solar conditions were dramatically different.     

Synergetic use of SAR and Thermal Infrared data to study the physical properties of the lunar surface

The surface layer of the Moon preserves vital evidences of lunar impact and cratering processes due to the absence of any Aeolian and fluvial erosion processes acting on it. By examining these evidences, which are recorded throughout the evolutionary history of the Moon, several basic aspects of lunar science can be understood, and this has direct relevance to the surfaces of other airless bodies within the solar system. In this study, rock abundance data obtained from Thermal Infrared (TIR) observations and radar Circular Polarization Ratio (CPR) data sets obtained from polarimetric SAR observations were correlated at some sample sites on the lunar surface. Preliminary results yielded qualitative and quantitative estimates for surface rock abundances. Except at distal ejecta deposits of young, bright craters a general correlation was observed between the two datasets. Mixed results were observed from the impact melt flows where the situation is complex due to the possible subsurface-volume and volume-subsurface interactions of the radar waves. But the flow features were clearly separated from the interior and ejecta regions of their parent craters in terms of CPR and rock abundances. The extent and distributions of pyroclastic deposits and dark haloed regions could not be distinctly identified at the resolution of datasets utilized. Near Gerasimovich D crater, the Diviner Radiometer has provided the first TIR observations of a newly discovered impact melt flow which was not visible in the optical imagery. This facilitated the first ever quantitative comparisons of the radar CPR and rock abundance values near such a region. Also, significant differences in spatial patterns between the radar and rock concentration data sets were observed, owing to the differences in the sensitivity of the two observations.     

Survival and death of the haloarchaeon Natronorubrum strain HG-1 in a simulated martian environment

Halophilic archaea are of interest to astrobiology due to their survival capabilities in desiccated and high salt environments. The detection of remnants of salty pools on Mars stimulated investigations into the response of haloarchaea to martian conditions. Natronorubrum sp. strain HG-1 is an extremely halophilic archaeon with unusual metabolic pathways, growing on acetate and stimulated by tetrathionate. We exposed Natronorubrum strain HG-1 to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, similar to levels currently prevalent on Mars. In addition, the effects of low temperature (4, −20, and −80 °C), desiccation, and exposure to a Mars soil analogue from the Atacama desert on the viability of Natronorubrum strain HG-1 cultures were investigated. The results show that Natronorubrum strain HG-1 cannot survive for more than several hours when exposed to UV radiation equivalent to that at the martian equator. Even when protected from UV radiation, viability is impaired by a combination of desiccation and low temperature. Desiccating Natronorubrum strain HG-1 cells when mixed with a Mars soil analogue impaired growth of the culture to below the detection limit. Overall, we conclude that Natronorubrum strain HG-1 cannot survive the environment currently present on Mars. Since other halophilic microorganisms were reported to survive simulated martian conditions, our results imply that survival capabilities are not necessarily shared between phylogenetically related species.     

2020中美阿火星探测任务分析

2020年为火星探测大年,各国相继赶在发射窗口发射自己的火星探测器,截至目前成功赶上发射窗口的国家,按时间先后分别为阿联酋、中国和美国。给出了2020年火星探测发射和到达窗口的“猪排”能量图,从有效载荷、发射窗口、运载火箭、地火转移轨道、火星俘获及着陆、通信等方面,对3个国家发射的探测器进行了对比分析,给出2020年三国火星探测各环节的关键参数,并提取出共同点及不同的特殊之处。     

双层结构月球的自由天平动与受迫天平动

根据JPL/NASA发布的月球行星历表DE430/LE430提供的月球物理参数,计算了月球主转动惯量;使用刚体月球转动微分方程获得的月球物理天平动解析关系式,计算了不同分层模型的月球自由天平动三个模式的频率及周期,比较并讨论了不同的解析结果;在此基础上,评估了月球受迫天平动一个模式的幅度。     

载人火星和小行星探测任务初步分析

载人火星和小行星探测是未来深空探测的重要发展方向,以美国为代表的航天强国正在积极开展相关方案论证和技术攻关。由于任务规模庞大,受制于目前以化学推进为主的运输系统能力限制,要进行火星、小行星探测,必须发展重型运载火箭、轨道转移级等运载工具。从载人火星、小行星探测任务规划的角度出发,对总体任务进行了初步分析,提出了初步的系统方案。