The correlation of the planetary atmosphere structural characteristics with their optical properties and radiative heat exchange peculiarities

The structure characteristics of the Earth-type planetary atmospheres are calculated solving the radiative heat exchange problem. Their correlations with the surface reflection characteristics and optical properties of their atmospheres are considered.     

系外行星大气与宜居系外行星研究进展及发展趋势

探测系外行星的主要目的是研究生命和可供地球生命生存的行星是否普遍存在这一基本科学问题.近20年来已有超过3000颗系外行星被发现,还有几千颗候选系外行星有待确认,其中疑似宜居系外行星的数量近20颗.未来十年疑似宜居系外行星的数目将大为增加.尽管目前对宜居系外行星大气观测的能力和科学结果还很有限,但可以预期未来20年对这一类行星大气的观测将成为行星科学研究的重要领域.本文根据当前系外行星大气科学发展的状态和主要科学问题,在对中国未来系外行星科学发展方向进行分析的基础上,提出一种比较可行的建议,即在近1~2年内有针对性地开展系外行星大气普查和系外行星高层大气观测的可行性论证和预研,并在5~10年内择一予以实施.      

Structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 kilometers

The present state of knowledge of the structure of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus below 100 km is reviewed. Both atmospheres have been characterized to a remarkable degree, considering their remoteness from Earth. Mars' atmosphere is more variable, and less well defined. The variability is seasonal, diurnal, and latitude dependent, and also is strongly affected by atmospheric dust. Venus' atmosphere is less variable and better defined, as a result of numerous spacecraft missions. Mars' atmosphere is generally statically stable from the surface to 100 km, and its temperatures are controlled by radiative transfer moderated by vertical flow. Venus' lower atmosphere is stratified, with stable layers predominating. Its temperatures also are controlled by radiation and vertical motion. Thermal tidal motions occur in both atmospheres at about the same pressure levels, with larger amplitudes at Venus, consistent with the larger solar input at Venus.     

The atmospheric greenhouse effect and climates on various planets

The greenhouse effect of the planetary atmospheres is considered and its evolution as a result of variations in the chemical composition and in gas abundances of the atmospheres as well as in the chemical composition, size distribution and concentration of aerosol components. A computer modelling gave the values of the greenhouse effect of the atmospheres of the Earth, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Titan. It is shown that the atmospheric greenhouse effect plays a decisive role in the formation of the planetary climates and that it has substantially changed in the process of the planetary evolution. The greenhouse effect mechanism has always been and still is a major factor of the mean global planetary climate.     

Comparative neutral composition instrumentation and new results

Composition and gas density measurement at all altitudes in the atmospheres of earth and other planets are made by mass spectrometers. Because of the impartiality and large dynamic range they are particularly favored for exploratory missions. Measurements of trace constituents, inert gases and height profiles, especially below clouds, are objectives where mass spectrometry is most useful. Significant advances have been made in recent years in development of light weight automated instruments. Experiments conducted in rarified atmospheres have been more successful or results were less controversial than in attempts to analyze high pressure atmospheres. Gas sampling and conditioning techniques are highly specific because of measurement environments and engineering constraints on the mission, and are usually the most critical elements in the experiment. Chemical sample enrichment and scrubbing for noble gas enhancement are additional sample conditioning techniques now employed. Dynamic range of more than 10⁸ is achievable. Reliable measurements of complex organic or chemically active trace constituents with mixing ratios of less than 10^?9 still require significant instrument development particularly where weight, power and sampling time are severely restricted. Adaptation of familiar and proven laboratory techniques for flight instruments is usually not straightforward and practical.     

Comparative atmospheric dynamics for terrestrial planets

A review is presented of theoretical ideas on the general circulations in the atmospheres of Earth, Mars and Venus and also of results of their theoretical modelling. The role of various factors is discussed in the formation of the circulations. These results are compared with observational data obtained by different means. Data of direct local measurements of meteorological parameters in the atmospheres of Venus and Mars are discussed including those obtained at their surfaces.     

Formation of bioorganic compounds in planetary atmospheres by cosmic radiation.

Simulated planetary atmospheres (mixtures of simple gases) were irradiated with high energy particles to simulate an action of cosmic rays. When a mixture of carbon monoxide, nitrogen and water was irradiated with 2.8-40 MeV protons, a wide variety of bioorganic compounds including amino acids, imidazole, and uracil were identified in the products. The amount of amino acids was proportional to the energy deposit to the system. Various kinds of simulated planetary atmospheres, such as "Titan type" and "Jovian type", were also irradiated with high energy protons, and gave amino acids in the hydrolyzed products. Since cosmic rays are a universal energy source in space, it was suggested that formation of bioorganic compounds in planetary atmospheres is inevitable in the course of cosmic evolution.     

Energy transfer by gravity wave dissipation

This paper reviews the subject of the dissipation of internal gravity waves in the thermosphere and shows how this is related to propagation. Differences of dissipation and heating rates in quiet and disturbed atmospheres are discussed, and the ranges of waves for different source heights in these atmospheres are calculated. Despite heavy damping of the waves, they may explain T.I.D.'s and related airglow observations in middle and low latitudes.     

Comparison of methods for the determination of key reactions in chemical systems: Application to Titan’s atmosphere

A new paradigm is emerging in the field of photochemistry modeling in giant planets and Titan atmospheres. The emphasis is placed on the accurate predictions of the models and the quantification of their uncertainties. In order to improve photochemical models predictions, it is necessary to identify in chemical schemes the key reactions that should be studied in priority at conditions relevant to planetary atmospheres.     

Past and future of radio occultation studies of planetary atmospheres

Measurements of radio waves that have propagated through planetary atmospheres have provided exploratory results on atmospheric constituents, structure, dynamics, and ionization for Venus, Mars, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. Highlights of past results are reviewed in order to define and illustrate the potential of occultation and related radio studies in future planetary missions.     

Organic syntheses in gas phase and chemical evolution in planetary atmospheres

Atmospheric chemistry may be one of the important pathways to the synthesis of organic compounds in a planetary periphery. Depending on the nature of the carbon source (CH₄, CO or CO₂), the main composition of the atmosphere, and the respective roles of the various energy sources, is it possible, and to what extent, to produce organics? What kind of gaseous mixture is the most favourable to prebiotic organic syntheses? How far can the results of laboratory works be extrapolated to the case of planetary atmospheres? These questions are discussed, on the basis of several available laboratory data, and by considering the main atmospheric composition of the planets of the solar system, and the list of organic compounds which have already been dettected in their atmospheres.     

Partial pressures and nature of products. Application to the photolysis of PH3 and NH3 in the atmosphere of Jupiter and Saturn.

The photolysis of mixtures of gases containing NH3 or PH3 presents important differences mainly due to the strength of the X-H bond. On some examples, these differences are evidenced and the consequences for mixtures of gases containing these two compounds are shown: the photolysis of ammonia and ethylene mainly gives ethyl-, butyl- and hexylamine whereas the photolysis of phosphine and ethylene leads to ethyl- and vinylphosphine. When gaseous mixtures of NH3, PH3 and ethylene are photolyzed together, the presence of phosphine dramatically decreases the formation of nitrogen derivatives. The relevance of such lab studies to the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn is discussed.     

Photochemistry of planetary ionospheres

The basic photochemical processes in the upper atmospheres and ionospheres of the various bodies in our solar system (planets, moons and comets) are similar. However, there are many different factors (e.g. gas composition, energy input, gravity) which control/change the relative importance of these controlling processes. The photo-chemistry of the inner planets is reasonably well understood at this time, thus there is good agreement between model calculations and most of the observational data base. The extremely limited information that we have available on the ionospheres of the outer planets leads to significant uncertainties about some of the controlling processes. Some important questions (e.g. Is the charge exchange process H⁺ + H₂(v≥4) → H₂⁺ + H important? Is water vapor influx from the rings important?) remain unanswered at this time. In cometary atmospheres the freshly evaporated parent molecules are rapidly photodissociated and photoionized, therefore most of the chemical kinetics of cometary ionospheres involve these rapidly moving and highly reactive ions and radicals.     

Photolysis of phosphine in the presence of acetylene and propyne, gas mixtures of planetary interest.

Phosphine (PH3) 1 has been observed in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn. We have studied the photochemical reactions of this compound with acetylene (C2H2), an alkyne also detected in these atmospheres. The volatile products formed in these reactions were characterized by H, 31P and 13C NMR. The ethenylphosphine 2 is the first product formed in the photolysis of PH3 in the presence Of C2H2. Photolysis of PH3 in the presence of propyne (C3H4) led to the formation of the Z- and E-prop-1-enylphosphines and traces of 1-methylethenylphosphine. A reaction pathway is proposed. The initial step is the dissociation of PH3 to hydrogen and PH2 radicals. Addition of the phosphinyl radical on alkyne occurs as the next step. Vinylphosphines are then formed by radical combination. This proposed reaction pathway takes into account the nature of the products and studies devoted to the photolysis of germane (GeH4) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the presence of alkyne. Attempts to detect the methylidynephosphine HC triple bond P (the isoelectronic compound of HC triple bond N), in the photolysis products of PH3-C2H2 mixtures were unsuccessful. The application of these findings to Jovian and Saturn atmospheric chemistry is discussed.     

Formation of bioorganic compounds in simulated planetary atmospheres by high energy particles or photons.

Various types of organic compounds have been detected in Jupiter, Titan, and cometary coma. It is probable that organic compounds were formed in primitive Earth and Mars atmospheres. Cosmic rays and solar UV are believed to be two major energy sources for organic formation in space. We examined energetics of organic formation in simulated planetary atmospheres. Gas mixtures including a C-source (carbon monoxide or methane) and a N-source (nitrogen or ammonia) was irradiated with the followings: High energy protons or electrons from accelerators, gamma-rays from 60Co, UV light from a deuterium lamp, and soft X-rays or UV light from an electron synchrotron. Amino acids were detected in the products of particles, gamma-rays and soft X-rays irradiation from each gas mixture examined. UV light gave, however, no amino acid precursors in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, nitrogen and nitrogen. It gave only a trace of them in the gas mixture of carbon monoxide, ammonia and water or that of methane, nitrogen and water. Yield of amino acid precursors by photons greatly depended on their wavelength. These results suggest that nitrogen-containing organic compounds like amino acid precursors were formed chiefly with high energy particles, not UV photons, in Titan or primitive Earth/Mars atmospheres where ammonia is not available as a predominant N-source.     

Isotopic ratios in planetary atmospheres.

Recent progress on measurements of isotopic ratios in planetary or satellite atmospheres include measurements of the D/H ratio in the methane of Uranus, Neptune and Titan and in the water of Mars and Venus. Implications of these measurements on our understanding of the formation and evolution of the planets and satellite are discussed. Our current knowledge of the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopic ratios in the atmospheres of these planets, as well as on Jupiter and Saturn, is also reviewed. We finally show what progress can be expected in the very near future due to some new ground-based instrumentation particularly well suited to such studies, and to forthcoming space missions.     

Modification of planetary atmospheres by material from the rings

The atmospheres and ionospheres of ringed planets can be, and perhaps are, modified by the injection of gaseous neutral and ionized species, and dust of ring origin. Although no direct evidence for such interaction exists, many of the unresolved characteristics of planetary composition, thermal structure and ionosphere would be understood if the rings supplied certain materials to their parent planets.     

Progress on Solar Physics in China During 2004 - 2006

The solar physics studies in China during 2004-2006 from solar interior to solar atmospheres and solar-interplanetary space are summarized. These researches are arranged under the topics of solar interior, photosphere, chromosphere and transition region, corona, flares and CMEs (and the associated radio bursts, X-ray/γ-ray bursts and particle acceleration), solar wind, solar cycle, and ground-based instrumentation.     

Silicate core-organic refractory mantle particles as interstellar dust and as aggregated in comets and stellar disks.

The principal observational properties of silicate core-organic refractory mantle interstellar dust grains in the infrared at 3.4 microns and at 10 microns and 20 microns are discussed in terms of the cyclic evolution of particles forming in stellar atmospheres and undergoing subsequent accretion, photoprocessing and destruction (erosion). Laboratory plus space emulation of the photoprocessing of laboratory analog ices and refractories are discussed. The aggregated interstellar dust model of comets is summarized. The same properties required to explain the temperature and infrared properties of comet coma dust are shown to be needed to account for the infrared silicate and continuum emission of the beta Pictoris disk as produced by a cloud of comets orbiting the star.     

Photospheric composition and structure in white dwarfs

One of the central mysteries of white dwarf studies has been the nature and abundance of trace elements in the atmospheres of these stars. It had been thought that the dominant trace element in otherwise pure hydrogen DA white dwarf atmospheres was helium. However, some spectroscopic and theoretical evidence suggested that, at least in some stars, heavier elements may be important. Prior to the launch of ROSAT the questions regarding the atmospheric composition of DA white dwarfs in general remained unresolved. The ROSAT mission has provided EUV and X-ray data for a large sample of DA white dwarfs with which we can study their photospheric composition and structure through the effect of trace opacity sources on the emergent fluxes. Contrary to expectations little (if any) helium is found and the main sources of opacity appear to be trace heavy elements. Support for these conclusions is found in recent EUV and far-UV spectra of several stars. However, photometric data do not allow us to determine the abundance of the individual elements and observations with the EUVE spectrometers will be essential for detailed composition measurements.