Progress of super-pressure balloon development: A new “tawara” concept with improved stability

The super-pressure balloon (SPB) has been expected to be a flight vehicle that can provide a long flight duration to science. Since 1997, we have developed the SPB. Now we are at the phase of developing an SPB of a practical size. In 2009, we carried out a test flight of a pumpkin-shaped SPB with a 60,000 m³ volume. The undesirable result of this flight aroused us to resolve the deployment instability of the pumpkin-shaped SPB, which has been known as one of the most challenging issues confronting SPB development. To explore this deployment issue, in 2010, we carried out a series of ground tests. From results of these tests, we found that an SPB design modified from pumpkin, named “tawara”, can be a good candidate to greatly improve the deployment stability of the lobed SPB.     

Analytical study on the inflated shape of a super pressure balloon covered with a diamond-shaped net

In the last two decades, extensive efforts have been made to develop a large super pressure balloon (SPB) capable of carrying heavy payloads for scientific observations of long durations. Due to recent achievements by the NASA Balloon Program Office, practical operations of large-scale lobed-pumpkin SPB will be realized in the near future. Meanwhile, the research team initiated the development of a lightweight SPB with an alternative design concept, in which the entire balloon is covered by a diamond-shaped net. In this work, the static structural response of the proposed SPB is analyzed by establishing a mathematical model to predict its inflated shape. This model is validated by comparing the generated results with those obtained from nonlinear finite element analysis. Excellent agreement between the analytical solutions and the corresponding finite element results was obtained. On the basis of the mathematical model, the inflated shape of the SPB is investigated and unique structural characteristics are deduced, i.e., the balloon inflates into a cylinder-like shape for a certain geometry of the cover net. This structural feature can be explained by considering the equilibrium of forces applied to the cover net.     

Evolution of scientific ballooning and its impact on astrophysics research

As we celebrate the centennial year of the discovery of cosmic rays on a manned balloon, it seems appropriate to reflect on the evolution of ballooning and its scientific impact. Balloons have been used for scientific research since they were invented in France more than 200 years ago. Ballooning was revolutionized in 1950 with the introduction of the so-called natural shape balloon with integral load tapes. This basic design has been used with more or less continuously improved materials for scientific balloon flights for more than a half century, including long-duration balloon (LDB) flights around Antarctica for the past two decades. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is currently developing the next generation super-pressure balloon that would enable extended duration missions above 99.5% of the Earth’s atmosphere at any latitude. The Astro2010 Decadal Survey report supports super-pressure balloon development and the giant step forward it offers with ultra-long-duration balloon (ULDB) flights at constant altitudes for about 100 days.     

Properties of tandem balloons connected by extendable suspension wires

The tandem balloon system has been known as a candidate system for long duration flight balloons. In this paper, the properties of the system are analytically studied in a new way by introducing an extendable suspension wire in the Sky Anchor configuration, which consists of a zero-pressure main balloon suspending a payload and a super-pressure balloon suspended below the payload. It was found that extension of the suspension wire between the payload and the super-pressure balloon can extend the capability of the tandem system; the altitude of the zero-pressure balloon can be changed without any consumables except some energy, and the day–night oscillation of the balloon altitude can be suppressed. This property is useful as the vehicle for long duration flights. It is also pointed out that the method to control the altitude of a balloon using an additional suspended super-pressure balloon can also be applied for super-pressure balloons.     

Mechanical properties of ANTRIX balloon film and fabrication of single cap large volume balloons

The zero pressure plastic balloons used for high altitude studies are generally made from polyethylene material. Tensile properties of the thin film polymer are the key parameters for material selection due to extremely low temperature of −90 °C encountered by the balloons in the tropopause region during the ascent at equatorial latitudes. The physical and structural properties of the material determine the uniformity of the stress distribution over the entire shell. Load stresses from the suspended load propagate via load tapes heat sealed along with the gore seals as per the balloon design. A balance between this heat seal strength and the film strength is a desirable property of the basic resin in terms of the bubble strength, gauge uniformity, and long-term storage properties. In addition, the design of the top shell of the balloon and its stress distribution play an important role since only a fraction of the balloon is deployed during the filling operation and the ascent. In this paper we describe the mechanical properties of the ‘ANTRIX’ film developed by us and the optimized design of single cap balloons, which have been successfully used in our experiments over the past 5 years.     

Experimental and numerical simulation of super-pressure balloon apex section: Mechanical behavior in realistic flight conditions

In order to predict the flight parameters and to improve the life time of long duration super-pressure balloon, a research program on modelization and experimental simulation of the balloon envelope mechanical behavior is carried out.The balloon is a 10 m diameter type made with multilayer polymeric films and tapes. A facility was developed to measure, via a stereo-correlation system, the 3D displacement and the in plane solicitation strain of a 1.5 m diameter balloon envelope part in realistic flight conditions, i.e. pressure, temperature and loading at the sample boundaries. A time dependant non-linear Maxwell model of the polymeric material behavior was identified from uniaxial creep and relaxation tests and implemented in a Finite Elements code, simulating the sample tested in the facility. The Poisson ratio of the transparent and supple balloon film has been measured with an image correlation system.Experimental results are obtained both at room and in cold conditions (−60 °C) for various values of differential pressure.Vertical displacement and in plane 2D strain of apex part deduced from the numerical modeling are compared to experimental results.     

A comprehensive numerical model investigating the thermal-dynamic performance of scientific balloon

The increase of balloon applications makes it necessary for a comprehensive understanding of the thermal and dynamic performance of scientific balloons. This paper proposed a novel numerical model to investigate the thermal and dynamic characteristics of scientific balloon in both ascending and floating conditions. The novel model consists of a dynamic model and thermal model, the dynamic model was solved numerically by a computer program developed with Matlab/Simulink to calculate the velocity and trajectory, the thermal model was solved by the Fluent program to find out the balloon film temperature distribution and inner Helium gas velocity and temperature field. These models were verified by comparing the numerical results with experimental data. Then the thermal and dynamic behavior of a scientific balloon in a real environment were simulated and discussed in details.     

Deployment simulation of a scalable planar gossamer space structure based on Miura-ori pattern

Miura-ori is a rigid origami structure utilized in the packaging of deployable solar panels for use in space or in the folding of maps. It's pattern can largely reduce the membrane stress and improve the work efficiency. Inspired by origami structures, we numerically and experimentally studied a scalable solar sail structure. As an improvement of the existing membrane simulations, a variable Poisson's ratio model considering the wrinkling effect of the membrane was introduced. We focused on a quadrant shape and studied how its geometry parameters and initial imperfections affect the membrane mechanical behavior. We also designed and fabricated a pantographic mechanism as an origami membrane actuator. In addition, design protocols of deployment applied to a scalable gossamer structure were proposed.     

Launching of a 500,000 cubic meter balloon with the semi-dynamic launching method

Launching a large balloon in a limited launching field is a long standing problem in Japan. The largest balloon ever launched successfully was 200,000 m³ in volume. It was launched in 1973. A larger balloon with a volume of 500,000 m³ was tried later, but it burst during the ascending phase. For launching balloons with a large lift exceeding 500 kg, the conventional static launching method had the most serious problem with possible damage to the polyethylene film of the balloon caused by the holding mechanism. After that, we had developed a new static launching method to launch balloons with a total lift of 1.0 ton. For launching a large balloon with a total lift above 1.5 ton, the new static launching method had a weak point in that if there was an air bubble in the folded part of the balloon, it may puncture the balloon as it is pushed by a spool. To avoid this problem, we developed a semi-dynamic launching method in 1999 using a launcher fixed to the ground leaving a freedom of rotation around the vertical axis. We have launched some balloons using the method and have gradually enriched our experience in using this system.In 2003, we successfully launched a balloon with a volume of 500,000 m³ by using the method. This balloon was made of polyethylene films with a thickness of 20 μm and it is the largest balloon ever launched in Japan.     

Studies of thin film nonlinear viscoelasticity for superpressure balloons

In order to provide scientists with a stratospheric platform from which to conduct long duration research, a superpressure balloon is desired which will maintain a relatively constant volume for weeks at a time. The pumpkin shaped balloon has been developed by making use of the surface lobing to limit the circumferential stress and meridional tendons to carry the loads in the other direction. However, in order to prevent geometric instabilities during deployment and after pressurization, the design should eliminate as much excess material as possible while not exceeding the permissible stresses of the material. This paper will describe the behavior of the very thin membrane material selected for this application and the limits of the film in a biaxial state of stress. In addition, it is shown that the viscoelastic nature of the film will limit the stress by causing a reduced radius of curvature in the lobe of the pumpkin.     

Viscoelastic behaviour of pumpkin balloons

The lobes of the NASA ULDB pumpkin-shaped super-pressure balloons are made of a thin polymeric film that shows considerable time-dependent behaviour. A nonlinear viscoelastic model based on experimental measurements has been recently established for this film. This paper presents a simulation of the viscoelastic behaviour of ULDB balloons with the finite element software ABAQUS. First, the standard viscoelastic modelling capabilities available in ABAQUS are examined, but are found of limited accuracy even for the case of simple uniaxial creep tests on ULDB films. Then, a nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive model is implemented by means of a user-defined subroutine. This approach is verified by means of biaxial creep experiments on pressurized cylinders and is found to be accurate provided that the film anisotropy is also included in the model. A preliminary set of predictions for a single lobe of a ULDB is presented at the end of the paper. It indicates that time-dependent effects in a balloon structure can lead to significant stress redistribution and large increases in the transverse strains in the lobes.     

Study of >100 GeV electrons with BETS detector using a long duration balloon flight in Antarctica

We have observed cosmic-ray electrons from 10 to 1000 GeV by a long duration balloon flight using Polar Patrol Balloon (PPB) in Antarctica. The observation was carried out for 13 days at an altitude of 35 km in January 2004. The detector is an imaging calorimeter composed of scintillating-fiber belts and plastic scintillators inserted between lead plates. The geometrical factor of detector is about 600 cm²sr and the total thickness of lead absorber is 9 radiation lengths. The performance of the detector has been confirmed by the CERN-SPS beam test and also investigated by Monte-Carlo simulations. New telemetry system using a commercial satellite of iridium, power supply by solar batteries, and automatic level control using CPU have successfully been developed and operated during the flight. We have collected 5.7 × 10³ events over 100 GeV including nearly 100 candidates of primary electrons.     

Prototype design and testing of a Venus long duration,high altitude balloon

This paper describes the design, fabrication and testing of a full scale prototype balloon intended for long duration flight in the upper atmosphere of Venus. The balloon is 5.5 m in diameter and is designed to carry a 45 kg payload at an altitude of 55 km. The balloon material is a 180 g/m² multi-component laminate comprised of the following layers bonded together from outside to inside: aluminized Teflon film, aluminized Mylar film, Vectran fabric and a polyurethane coating. This construction provides the required balloon functional characteristics of low gas permeability, sulfuric acid resistance and high strength for superpressure operation. The design burst superpressure is 39,200 Pa which is predicted to be 3.3 times the worst case value expected during flight at the highest solar irradiance in the mission profile. The prototype is constructed from 16 gores with bi-taped seams employing a sulfuric acid resistant adhesive on the outside. Material coupon tests were performed to evaluate the optical and mechanical characteristics of the laminate. These were followed by full prototype tests for inflation, leakage and sulfuric acid tolerance. The results confirmed the suitability of this balloon design for use at Venus in a long duration mission. The various data are presented and the implications for mission design and operation are discussed.     

Excitation of electrostatic plasma waves by a moving charged source in a quantum plasma

Within a quantum hydrodynamic model and using the reductive perturbation technique, the nonlinear ion-acoustic wave (IAW) excitations due to a moving charged object in an electron-pair-ion quantum plasma are studied both analytically and numerically. In such quantum plasmas we have derived forced Korteweg-de Vries (fKdV) type equation for finite amplitude nonlinear IAWs. The effect of relevant plasma parameters on solitonic excitations is investigated. Numerical simulation shows the generation of advancing solitons ahead of the forcing term traveling at a faster rate with trailing wakes behind the forcing disturbance. It is found that propagation characteristics of nonlinear excitations are significantly affected by quantum parameter. Additionally, we have pursued our analysis by extending it to account for arbitrary amplitude IA solitons, and derived a system of nonlinear differential equations which are analyzed numerically to study the dynamics. Nonlinear analysis predicts the existence of periodic and quasiperiodic nature of the nonlinear system and reveals that the transition from quasiperiodic to periodic behavior occurs due to the variation of quantum diffraction.     

Influence of curved thin-film device on deformation of a solar sail

A spinning solar sail IKAROS’s membrane is estimated to unexpectedly deform into an inverted pyramid shape due to thin-film devices with curvature, such as thin-film solar cells and steering devices on the membrane. It is important to investigate the deformation caused by the curved thin-film devices and predict the sail shape because the out-of-plane deformation greatly affects solar radiation pressure (SRP) and SRP torque. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between the global shape and orientation and position of curved thin-film devices and to evaluate SRP torque on the global shape using finite element analysis. The global shape is evaluated based on the out-of-plane displacement and the SRP torque. When the curved thin-film devices make the membrane shrink in the circumferential, diagonal, and radial direction, the sail deforms into a pyramid shape, an inverted pyramid one, and a saddle one, respectively. The saddle shape is more desirable for solar sails than the inverted pyramid shape and the pyramid one from the viewpoint of shape stability to SRP and control of SRP torque in the normal direction of the sail (windmill torque). The position of the thin-film device tends to increase the absolute value of windmill torque when it is biased circumferentially from the petal central axis. The suggested design principles for the arrangement of thin-film devices is that the curved thin-film devices should be directed so that the sail shrinks in the radial direction in order to deform the sail into a saddle shape with high shape stability, and the position of the thin-film devices should be biased in the circumferential direction paying attention to the absolute value of windmill torque to determine the direction of windmill torque.     

Packaging of thick membranes using a multi-spiral folding approach: Flat and curved surfaces

Elucidating versatile configurations of spiral folding, and investigating the deployment performance is of relevant interest to extend the applicability of deployable membranes towards large-scale and functional configurations.In this paper we propose new schemes to package flat and curved membranes of finite thickness by using multiple spirals, whose governing equations render folding lines by juxtaposing spirals and by accommodating membrane thickness. Our experiments using a set of topologically distinct flat and curved membranes deployed by tensile forces applied in the radial and circumferential directions have shown that (1) the multi-spiral approach with prismatic folding lines offered the improved deployment performance, and (2) the deployment of curved surfaces progresses rapidly within a finite load domain. Furthermore, we confirmed the high efficiency of membranes folded by multi-spiral patterns.From viewpoints of configuration and deployment performance, the multi-spiral approach is potential to extend the versatility and maneuverability of spiral folding mechanisms.     

包含密集模态的空间结构的模糊主动振动控制

分析和总结了典型密频系统特性及其对控制的影响．针对密频系统的模态不稳定特性及密集模态的低可控度问题,引入一定数量的压电类智能结构作为传感器和作动器,基于独立模态空间设计了针对结构包含密集模态的参数自调整模糊主动振动控制系统．该系统对密频系统的不确定性和溢出干扰项具有鲁棒性,且能充分利用作动器的作动能力,在作动能力有限的前提下,相比于传统控制方法可更为有效地抑制结构振动．最后以典型密频系统在轨工作时受到的两种主要激励模式为例,仿真证实了该方案的正确性和有效性．     

Scientific but people-oriented education and multi-cultural adaptations of international heliophysical year education resources: A perspective from a developing nation

The world is made up of people of varied cultures who speak different languages. In Africa and, to be more specific, in Nigeria, there is a wide diversity of languages and customs. Nigeria has about 250 ethnic social units, to the extent that just a few of the populace have an effective understanding of English, the nation’s official language. Hence, most communications are carried out in the local languages.     

Development of a CELSS Experimental Facility

A CELSS Experimental Facility was developed two years ago. It contains a volume of about 40.0 m³ and a cultivating area of about 8.4 m²; its interior atmospheric parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide concentration, total pressure, lighting intensity, photoperiod, water content in the growing-matrix, CO₂-added accumulative amount, O₂-released accumulative amount and ethylene concentration are all controlled and logged automatically and effectively; its growing system consists of two rows of racks along its left-and-right sides separately, each side holds two upper-and-lower layers, and the vertical distance of each growing bed can be adjusted automatically and independently; lighting sources consist of both red (95%) and blue (5%) light-emitting diodes (LED), and the average lighting intensity of each lamp bank at 20-cm distance position under it, reaches to 255.0 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. After that, demonstrating tests were carried out and were finally followed by growing lettuce in the facility. The results showed that all subsystems operated well and all parameters were controlled automatically and efficiently. The lettuce plants in the system could grow much well. Successful development of this system laid a necessary foundation for future larger-scale studies on CELSS integration technique.