Achievable debris orbit prediction accuracy using laser ranging data from a single station

Earlier studies have shown that an orbit prediction accuracy of 20 arc sec ground station pointing error for 1–2 day predictions was achievable for low Earth orbit (LEO) debris using two passes of debris laser ranging (DLR) data from a single station, separated by about 24 h. The accuracy was determined by comparing the predicted orbits with subsequent tracking data from the same station. This accuracy statement might be over-optimistic for other parts of orbit far away from the station. This paper presents the achievable orbit prediction accuracy using satellite laser ranging (SLR) data of Starlette and Larets under a similar data scenario as that of DLR. The SLR data is corrupted with random errors of 1 m standard deviation so that its accuracy is similar to that of DLR data. The accurate ILRS Consolidated Prediction Format orbits are used as reference to compute the orbit prediction errors. The study demonstrates that accuracy of 20 arc sec for 1–2 day predictions is achievable.     

Laser measurements to space debris from Graz SLR station

In order to test laser ranging possibilities to space debris objects, the Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) Station Graz installed a frequency doubled Nd:YAG pulse laser with a 1 kHz repetition rate, a pulse width of 10 ns, and a pulse energy of 25 mJ at 532 nm (on loan from German Aerospace Center Stuttgart – DLR). We developed and built low-noise single-photon detection units to enable laser ranging to targets with inaccurate orbit predictions, and adapted our standard SLR software to include a few hundred space debris targets. With this configuration, we successfully tracked – within 13 early-evening sessions of each about 1.5 h – 85 passes of 43 different space debris targets, in distances between 600 km and up to more than 2500 km, with radar cross sections from >15 m² down to <0.3 m², and measured their distances with an average precision of about 0.7 m RMS.     

Improved kHz-SLR tracking techniques and orbit quality analysis for LEO missions

Satellite gravity field missions such as CHAMP, GRACE and GOCE are designed as low Earth orbiting spacecraft (LEO) with orbit heights of about 250–500 km. The challenging mission objectives require a very precise knowledge of the satellite orbit position in space. For these missions precise orbit information is typically provided by GPS satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST) observations supported by satellite laser ranging (SLR).     

Accurate orbit predictions for debris orbit manoeuvre using ground-based lasers

Orbit manoeuvre of low Earth orbiting (LEO) debris using ground-based lasers has been proposed as a cost-effective means to avoid debris collisions. This requires the orbit of the debris object to be determined and predicted accurately so that the laser beam can be locked on the debris without the loss of valuable laser operation time. This paper presents the method and results of a short-term accurate LEO (<900 km in altitude) debris orbit prediction study using sparse laser ranging data collected by the EOS Space Debris Tracking System (SDTS). A main development is the estimation of the ballistic coefficients of the LEO objects from their archived long-term two line elements (TLE). When an object is laser tracked for two passes over about 24 h, orbit prediction (OP) accuracy of 10–20 arc seconds for the next 24–48 h can be achieved – the accuracy required for laser debris manoeuvre. The improvements in debris OP accuracy are significant in other applications such as debris conjunction analyses and the realisation of daytime debris laser tracking.     

Time Transfer by Laser Link: Data analysis and validation to the ps level

The Time Transfer by Laser Link (T2L2) is a very high resolution time transfer technique based on the recording of arrival times of laser pulses at the satellite. T2L2 was designed to achieve time stability in the range of 1 ps over 1000 s and an accuracy better than 100 ps. The project is in operation onboard the Jason-2 satellite since June 2008. The principle is based on the Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) technology; it uses the input of 20–25 SLR stations of the international laser network which participate in the tracking. This paper focuses on the data reduction process which was developed specifically to transform the raw information given by both space instrument and ground network: first to identify the triplets (ground and onboard epochs and time of flight of the laser pulse), second to estimate a usable product in terms of ground-to-space time transfer (including instrumental corrections), and thirdly to produce synchronization between any pair of remote ground clocks. In describing the validation of time synchronizations, the paper opens a way for monitoring the time difference between ultra-stable clocks thanks to a laser link at a few ps level for Common View passes. It highlights however that without accurately characterizing the onboard oscillator of Jason-2 and knowing the unavailability of time calibrations of SLR stations generally, time transfer over intercontinental distances remain difficult to be accurately estimated.     

First laser measurements to space debris in Poland

The Borowiec Satellite Laser Ranging station (BORL 7811, Borowiec) being a part of the Space Research Centre of the Polish Academy of Sciences (SRC PAS) went through modernization in 2014–2015. One of the main tasks of the modernization was the installation of a high-energy laser module dedicated to space debris tracking. Surelite III by Continuum is a Nd:YAG pulse laser with 10?Hz repetition rate, a pulse width of 3–5?ns and a pulse energy of 450?mJ for green (532?nm). This new laser unit was integrated with the SLR system at Borowiec performing standard satellite tracking. In 2016 BORL 7811 participated actively to the observational campaigns related to the space debris targets from LEO region managed by the Space Debris Study Group (SDSG) of the International Laser Ranging Service (ILRS).Currently, Borowiec station regularly tracks 36 space debris from the LEO regime, including typical rocket bodies (Russian/Chinese) and cooperative targets like the inactive TOPEX/Poseidon, ENVISAT, OICETS and others. In this paper the first results of space debris laser measurements obtained by the Borowiec station in period August 2016 – January 2017 are presented. The results gained by the SRC PAS Borowiec station confirm the rotation of the defunct TOPEX/Poseidon satellite which spins with a period of approximately 10?s. The novelty of this work is the presentation of the sample results of the Chinese CZ-2C R/B target (NORAD catalogue number 31114) which is equipped (probably) with retroreflectors. Laser measurements to space debris is a very desirable topic for the next years, especially in the context of the Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) activity. Some targets are very easy to track like defunct ENVISAT or TOPEX/Poseidon. On the other hand, there is a big population of different LEO targets with different orbital and physical parameters, which are challenging for laser ranging like small irregular debris and rocket boosters.     

A robotic telescope network for space debris identification and tracking

The two TAROT (Télescopes à Action Rapide pour les Objets Transitoires; Rapid Action Telescopes for Transient Objects) installations are fully robotic optical observatories with optimized observation scheduling, data processing and archiving. Zadko is a 1 m telescope in Western Australia. The fully robotisation of the Zadko telescope has just been completed; it is now included in the TAROT network. In this paper we provide an overview of this international network of robotic optical telescopes. We discuss the advantages of using the network to participate in a satellite and space debris tracking program. This network will access almost all geostationary belt objects, and provide the first real-time satellite positioning capability. The inclusion of the 1 m Zadko telescope into the network significantly extends the efficiency and sensitivity of the existing two telescope configuration.     

Design of tracking mount and controller for mobile satellite laser ranging system

In this study, we have proposed and implemented a design for the tracking mount and controller of the ARGO-M (Accurate Ranging system for Geodetic Observation - Mobile) which is a mobile satellite laser ranging (SLR) system developed by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) and Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM). The tracking mount comprises a few core components such as bearings, driving motors and encoders. These components were selected as per the technical specifications for the tracking mount of the ARGO-M. A three-dimensional model of the tracking mount was designed. The frequency analysis of the model predicted that the first natural frequency of the designed tracking mount was high enough. The tracking controller is simulated using MATLAB/xPC Target to achieve the required pointing and tracking accuracy. In order to evaluate the system repeatability and tracking accuracy of the tracking mount, a prototype of the ARGO-M was fabricated, and repeatability tests were carried out using a laser interferometer. Tracking tests were conducted using the trajectories of low earth orbit (LEO) and high earth orbit (HEO) satellites. Based on the test results, it was confirmed that the prototype of the tracking mount and controller of the ARGO-M could achieve the required repeatability along with a tracking accuracy of less than 1 arcsec.     

Status of the T2L2/Jason2 Experiment

The T2L2 (Time Transfer by Laser Link) project, developed by CNES and OCA will permit the synchronization of remote ultra stable clocks and the determination of their performances over intercontinental distances. The principle of the experiment derives from Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) technology with dedicated space equipment. T2L2 was accepted in 2005 to be on board the Jason2 altimetry satellite. The payload consists of both event timer and photo detection modules. The system uses the ultra-stable quartz oscillator of DORIS as on-board reference clock on one hand, and the Laser Reflector Array, making T2L2 a real two-way time transfer system on the other hand. The expected time stability of the T2L2 instrument (detection and timing), referenced by the DORIS oscillator and including all internal error sources should be at the level of 10–12 ps at 1 s and <1 ps at 1000 s. The metrological specifications of T2L2 should permit to maintain a precision of 1 to a few ps when measuring the phase of a clock during around 1000 seconds.     

Simulation of optical response of retroreflectors for future lunar laser ranging

We numerically examined various retroreflectors as laser ranging targets for future missions to the Moon. The geometric conditions, such as the angle of incidence and velocity aberration, with lunar targets are much more restricted than those with most of the earth-orbiting artificial satellites. The numerical optical response simulation carried out in this study indicates that a single retroreflector with a diameter of 150–250 mm performs similar to the existing Apollo retroreflector arrays. Further, no dihedral angle is required for small retroreflectors with diameters below 150 mm for uncoated ones and below 100 mm for coated and hollow ones. Retroreflectors with larger diameters require dihedral angles of 0.20, 0.25, and 0.35 arcsec for coated, uncoated and hollow types, respectively. The objective of this fundamental study is to underlie the development of future laser ranging targets that are to be placed on the Moon.     

Single photon laser altimeter simulator and statistical signal processing

Spaceborne altimeters are common instruments onboard the deep space rendezvous spacecrafts. They provide range and topographic measurements critical in spacecraft navigation. Simultaneously, the receiver part may be utilized for Earth-to-satellite link, one way time transfer, and precise optical radiometry. The main advantage of single photon counting approach is the ability of processing signals with very low signal-to-noise ratio eliminating the need of large telescopes and high power laser source. Extremely small, rugged and compact microchip lasers can be employed. The major limiting factor, on the other hand, is the acquisition time needed to gather sufficient volume of data in repetitive measurements in order to process and evaluate the data appropriately. Statistical signal processing is adopted to detect signals with average strength much lower than one photon per measurement. A comprehensive simulator design and range signal processing algorithm are presented to identify a mission specific altimeter configuration. Typical mission scenarios (celestial body surface landing and topographical mapping) are simulated and evaluated. The high interest and promising single photon altimeter applications are low-orbit (∼10 km) and low-radial velocity (several m/s) topographical mapping (asteroids, Phobos and Deimos) and landing altimetry (∼10 km) where range evaluation repetition rates of ∼100 Hz and 0.1 m precision may be achieved. Moon landing and asteroid Itokawa topographical mapping scenario simulations are discussed in more detail.     

Design and experiment of onboard laser time transfer in Chinese Beidou navigation satellites

High-precision time synchronization between satellites and ground stations plays the vital role in satellite navigation system. Laser time transfer (LTT) technology is widely recognized as the highest accuracy way to achieve time synchronization derived from satellite laser ranging (SLR) technology. Onboard LTT payload has been designed and developed by Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, and successfully applied to Chinese Beidou navigation satellites. By using the SLR system, with strictly controlling laser firing time and developing LTT data processing system on ground, the high precise onboard laser time transfer experiment has been first performed for satellite navigation system in the world. The clock difference and relative frequency difference between the ground hydrogen maser and space rubidium clocks have been obtained, with the precision of approximately 300 ps and relative frequency stability of 10E−14. This article describes the development of onboard LTT payload, introduces the principle, system composition, applications and LTT measuring results for Chinese satellite navigation system.     

Influence of atmospheric turbulence on planetary transceiver laser ranging

In this paper we investigate the influence of atmospheric turbulence on the performance of the uplink of a planetary transceiver laser ranging system using a single photon detector. We numerically combine the influence of turbulence in the mean intensity profile variations, scintillation, beam-wander induced pointing errors and stochastic time-of-flight variations, using the Hufnagel–Valley turbulence profile to model the ground turbulence behavior. We map the intensity variations due to turbulence to variations in the probability distribution of the arrival time of the 1st photon in a laser pulse, which influences the range measurement error probability distribution. The turbulence models are applied to assess the influence on single-pass range accuracy and precision statistics, as well as the parameter estimation quality of a Phobos Laser Ranging (PLR) mission.     

Attitude analysis of space debris using SLR and light curve data measured with single-photon detector

Attitude is the important parameter for active debris removal and collision avoidance. This paper deduced the spin axis orientation and spin period of the rocket body, CZ-3B R/B (NORAD ID 38253), using the satellite laser ranging and light curve data measured with single-photon detector at Graz station. The epoch method and LC & SLR residuals fitting were combined to determine these values. The derived right ascension angle was around 220°, the declination angle was near 64° and the sidereal period was calculated to be 117.724 s, for 2017-07-03. The results derived from the two distinct methods were mutually validated. Rocket bodies are a major contributor to space debris and this work provides a reference for attitude determination and attitude modelling.     

Contribution of satellite laser ranging to combined gravity field models

In the framework of satellite-only gravity field modeling, satellite laser ranging (SLR) data is typically exploited to recover long-wavelength features. This contribution provides a detailed discussion of the SLR component of GOCO02S, the latest release of combined models within the GOCO series. Over a period of five years (January 2006 to December 2010), observations to LAGEOS-1, LAGEOS-2, Ajisai, Stella, and Starlette were analyzed. We conducted a series of closed-loop simulations and found that estimating monthly sets of spherical harmonic coefficients beyond degree five leads to exceedingly ill-posed normal equation systems. Therefore, we adopted degree five as the spectral resolution for real data analysis. We compared our monthly coefficient estimates of degree two with SLR and Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) time series provided by the Center for Space Research (CSR) at Austin, Texas. Significant deviations in C₂₀ were noted between SLR and GRACE; the agreement is better for the non-zonal coefficients. Fitting sinusoids together with a linear trend to our C₂₀ time series yielded a rate of (−1.75 ± 0.6) × 10⁻¹¹/yr; this drift is equivalent to a geoid change from pole to equator of 0.35 ± 0.12 mm/yr or an apparent Greenland mass loss of 178.5 ± 61.2 km³/yr. The mean of all monthly solutions, averaged over the five-year period, served as input for the satellite-only model GOCO02S. The contribution of SLR to the combined gravity field model is highest for C₂₀, and hence is essential for the determination of the Earth’s oblateness.     

Numerical simulation of time delay interferometry for a LISA-like mission with the simplification of having only one interferometer

In order to attain the requisite sensitivity for LISA, laser frequency noise must be suppressed below the secondary noises such as the optical path noise, acceleration noise etc. In a previous paper (Dhurandhar, S.V., Nayak, K.R., Vinet, J.-Y. Time delay interferometry for LISA with one arm dysfunctional. Class. Quantum Grav. 27, 135013, 2010), we have found a large family of second-generation analytic solutions of time delay interferometry with one arm dysfunctional, and we also estimated the laser noise due to residual time-delay semi-analytically from orbit perturbations due to Earth. Since other planets and solar-system bodies also perturb the orbits of LISA spacecraft and affect the time delay interferometry (TDI), we simulate the time delay numerically in this paper for all solutions with the generation number n ? 3. We have worked out a set of 3-year optimized mission orbits of LISA spacecraft starting at January 1, 2021 using the CGC2.7 ephemeris framework. We then use this numerical solution to calculate the residual optical path differences in the second-generation solutions of our previous paper, and compare with the semi-analytic error estimate. The accuracy of this calculation is better than 1 cm (or 30 ps). The maximum path length difference, for all configuration calculated, is below 1 m (3 ns). This is well below the limit under which the laser frequency noise is required to be suppressed. The numerical simulation in this paper can be applied to other space-borne interferometers for gravitational wave detection with the simplification of having only one interferometer.     

The high precision gamma-ray spectrometer for lunar polar orbiter SELENE

The high precision gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS) is scheduled to be launched on the lunar polar orbiter of the SELENE mission in 2007. The GRS consists of a large Ge crystal as a main detector and massive bismuth germanate crystals as an anticoincidence detector. A Stirling cryocooler was adopted in cooling the Ge detector. The flight model of SELENE GRS has been completed and an energy resolution of 3.0 keV (FWHM) at 1.332 MeV has been achieved. The spectrometer aims to observe nuclear line gamma rays emitted from the lunar surface in a wide energy range from 100 keV to 12 MeV for one year and more to obtain chemical composition on the entire lunar surface. The gamma-ray data enable us to study lunar geoscience problems including crust and mantle composition, and volatile reservoirs at polar regions.     

JUXTA: A new probe of X-ray emission from the Jupiter system

For the future Japanese exploration mission of the Jupiter’s magnetosphere (JMO: Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter), a unique instrument named JUXTA (Jupiter X-ray Telescope Array) is being developed. It aims at the first in-situ measurement of X-ray emission associated with Jupiter and its neighborhood. Recent observations with Earth-orbiting satellites have revealed various X-ray emission from the Jupiter system. X-ray sources include Jupiter’s aurorae, disk emission, inner radiation belts, the Galilean satellites and the Io plasma torus. X-ray imaging spectroscopy can be a new probe to reveal rotationally driven activities, particle acceleration and Jupiter–satellite binary system. JUXTA is composed of an ultra-light weight X-ray telescope based on micromachining technology and a radiation-hard semiconductor pixel detector. It covers 0.3–2 keV with the energy resolution of <100 eV at 0.6 keV. Because of proximity to Jupiter (∼30 Jovian radii at periapsis), the image resolution of <5 arcmin and the on-axis effective area of >3 cm² at 0.6 keV allow extremely high photon statistics and high resolution observations.     

A feasibility study for the detection of the diurnal variation of tropospheric NO2 over Tokyo from a geostationary orbit

We have conducted a feasibility study for the geostationary monitoring of the diurnal variation of tropospheric NO₂ over Tokyo. Using NO₂ fields from a chemical transport model, synthetic spectra were created by a radiative transfer model, SCIATRAN, for summer and winter cases. We then performed a Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) analysis to retrieve NO₂ slant column densities (SCDs), and after converting SCDs into vertical column densities (VCDs), we estimated the precision of the retrieved VCDs. The simulation showed that signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) ? 500 is needed to detect the diurnal variation and that SNR ? 1000 is needed to observe the local minimum occurring in the early afternoon (LT13–14) in summer. In winter, the detection of the diurnal variation during LT08–15 needs SNR ? 500, and SNR ? 1000 is needed if early morning (LT07) and early evening (LT16) are included. The currently discussed sensor specification for the Japanese geostationary satellite project, GMAP-Asia, which has a horizontal resolution of 10 km and a temporal resolution of 1hr, has demonstrated the performance of a precision of several percent, which is approximately corresponding to SNR = 1000–2000 during daytime and SNR ? 500 in the morning and evening. We also discuss possible biases caused by the temperature dependence of the absorption cross section utilized in the DOAS retrieval, and the effect of uncertainties of surface albedo and clouds on the estimation of precisions.     

Debris flux comparisons from the Goldstone Radar,Haystack Radar,and Hax Radar prior,during, and after the last solar maximum

The continual monitoring of the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris environment using highly sensitive radars is essential for an accurate characterization of these dynamic populations. Debris populations are continually evolving since there are new debris sources, previously unrecognized debris sources, and debris loss mechanisms that are dependent on the dynamic space environment. Such radar data are used to supplement, update, and validate existing orbital debris models. NASA has been utilizing radar observations of the debris environment for over a decade from three complementary radars: the NASA JPL Goldstone radar, the MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT/LL) Long Range Imaging Radar (known as the Haystack radar), and the MIT/LL Haystack Auxiliary radar (HAX). All of these systems are highly sensitive radars that operate in a fixed staring mode to statistically sample orbital debris in the LEO environment. Each of these radars is ideally suited to measure debris within a specific size region. The Goldstone radar generally observes objects with sizes from 2 mm to 1 cm. The Haystack radar generally measures from 5 mm to several meters. The HAX radar generally measures from 2 cm to several meters. These overlapping size regions allow a continuous measurement of cumulative debris flux versus diameter from 2 mm to several meters for a given altitude window. This is demonstrated for all three radars by comparing the debris flux versus diameter over 200 km altitude windows for 3 nonconsecutive years from 1998 to 2003. These years correspond to periods before, during, and after the peak of the last solar cycle. Comparing the year to year flux from Haystack for each of these altitude regions indicate statistically significant changes in subsets of the debris populations. Potential causes of these changes are discussed. These analysis results include error bars that represent statistical sampling errors.