Trends in space life support.

Considerable progress has been made in recent years on development of candidate physico-chemical components for use in regenerative life support systems (LSS) for future extended-duration-mission spacecraft; these life support systems provide air revitalization including carbon dioxide reduction, water reclamation, and limited waste management. For still longer duration manned space flights, such as a permanently inhabited space station, it is generally recognized that development of biological life support systems capable of generating food and regenerating wastes will be essential to reduce logistics costs.     

国外载人航天的生命保障系统

文章简要介绍了载人航天3种生命保障方式的一些特点,重点介绍了基于物理/化学方法的部分物质再生生命保障系统和生物生态闭环生命保障系统两种方式的再生技术,并例举了ESA的生命保障发展计划,即生物空气过滤技术计划和微生态生命保障系统方案计划.     

Assessment of the possibility of establishing material cycling in an experimental model of the bio-technical life support system with plant and human wastes included in mass exchange

A pilot model of a bio-technical life support system (BTLSS) including human and plant wastes has been developed at the Institute of Biophysics SB RAS (Krasnoyarsk, Russia). This paper describes the structure of the photosynthesizing unit of the system, which includes wheat, chufa and vegetables. The study substantiates the simultaneous use of neutral and biological substrates for cultivating plants. A novel physicochemical method for the involvement of human wastes in the cycling has been employed, which enables the use of recycled products as nutrients for plants. Inedible plant biomass was subjected to biological combustion in the soil-like substrate (SLS) and was thus involved in the system mass exchange; NaCl contained in native urine was returned to the human through the consumption of Salicornia europaea, an edible salt-concentrating plant. Mass transfer processes in the studied BLSS have been examined for different chemical components.     

ESA's Biopan 1--"Vitamin" experiment preliminary results

The purpose of “Vitamin” experiment is to study the efficiency of protective substances on three biological acellular systems aqueous solutions exposed to cosmic radiation in space. The first system “LDL”is a low density lipoprotein. The second is “E2-TeBG complexe” in which estradiol (E2) is bound to its plasmatic carrier protein, testosterone-estradiol binding globulin (TeBG). The third is “pBR 322”, a plasmid. “Vitamin” experiment was accomodated in the Biopan which had been mounted on the outer surface of a Foton retrievable satellite. The experiment was exposed to space environment during 15 days. A stable temperature of about 20 °C was maintained throughout the flight. “Vitamin” experiment preliminary results are presented and discussed.     

Life support system development in West Germany

The delivery of fully qualified Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLS) flight hardware for the Spacelab Flight Unit was completed in 1979, and the first Spacelab flight is scheduled for mid 1983.

With Spacelab approaching its operational stage, ESA has initiated the Follow-on Development Programme. The future evolution of Spacelab elements in a continued U.S./European cooperation is obviously linked to the U.S. STS evolution and leads from the sortie-mode improvements (Initial Step) towards pallet systems and module applications in unmanned and manned space platforms (Medium and Far Term Alternatives).

Extensive studies and design work have been accomplished on life support systems for Life Sciences Laboratories (Biorack) in Spacelab (incubators and holding units for low vertebrates).

Future long term missions require the implementation of closed loop life support systems and in order to meet the long range development cycle feasibility studies have been performed. Terrestrial applications of the life support technologies developed for space have been successfully implemented.     

PEM水电解技术在航天上的应用现状与发展趋势

介绍了质子交换膜(PEM)水电解技术的特点及其在国内外航天领域的应用现状,在分析空间任务的发展趋势,以及能源、动力、环境控制与生命保障系统需求变化的基础上,认为在未来载人航天任务中,能源、动力、生保物质互用的解决方法是摆脱依赖地面支持、实现自主和可持续保障的最优途径,并指出了PEM水电解技术作为实现这一技术途径的关键环节所面临的挑战。     

Scenarios which may lead to the rise of an asteroid-based technical civilisation

In a previous paper, the author described a hypothetical development path of technical civilisations which has the following stages: planet dwellers, asteroid dwellers, interstellar travellers, interstellar space dwellers. In this paper, several scenarios are described which may cause the rise of an asteroid-based technical civilisation. Before such a transition may take place, certain space technologies must be developed fully (now these exist only in very preliminary forms): closed-cycle biological life support systems, space manufacturing systems, electrical propulsion systems. After mastering these technologies, certain events may provide the necessary financial means and social impetus for the foundation of the first asteroid-based colonies. In the first scenario, a rich minority group becomes persecuted and they decide to leave the Earth. In the second scenario, a "cold war"-like situation exists and the leaders of the superpowers order the creation of asteroid-based colonies to show off their empires' technological (and financial) grandiosity. In the third scenario, the basic situation is similar to the second one, but in this case the asteroids are not just occupied by the colonists. With several decades of hard work, an asteroid can be turned into a kinetic energy weapon which can provide the same (or greater) threat as the nuclear arsenal of a present superpower. In the fourth scenario, some military asteroids are moved to Earth-centred orbits and utilised as "solar power satellites" (SPS). This would be a quite economical solution because a "military asteroid" already contains most of the important components of an SPS (large solar collector arrays, power distribution devices, orbit modifying rocket engine), one should add only a large microwave transmitter.     

Controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) in high pressure environments

Future space habitats may be constructed in high pressure environments. The biological components of any controlled ecological life support systems (CELSS) used in these habitats will have to be able to grow and metabolize normally for the CELSS to operate.     

Formation of higher plant component microbial community in closed ecological system

Closed ecological systems (CES) place at the disposal of a researcher unique possibilities to study the role of microbial communities in individual components and of the entire system. The microbial community of the higher plant component has been found to form depending on specific conditions of the closed ecosystem: length of time the solution is reused, introduction of intrasystem waste water into the nutrient medium, effect of other component of the system, and system closure in terms of gas exchange. The higher plant component formed its own microbial complex different from that formed prior to closure. The microbial complex of vegetable polyculture is more diverse and stable than the monoculture of wheat. The composition of the components' microflora changed, species diversity decreased, individual species of bacteria and fungi whose numbers were not so great before the closure prevailed. Special attention should be paid to phytopathogenic and conditionally pathogenic species of microorganisms potentially hazardous to man or plants and the least controlled in CES. This situation can endanger creation of CES and make conjectural existence of preplanned components, man, specifically, and consequently, of CES as it is.     

Microgravity effects on water supply and substrate properties in porous matrix root support systems.

The control of water content and water movement in granular substrate-based plant root systems in microgravity is a complex problem. Improper water and oxygen delivery to plant roots has delayed studies of the effects of microgravity on plant development and the use of plants in physical and mental life support systems. Our international effort (USA, Russia and Bulgaria) has upgraded the plant growth facilities on the Mir Orbital Station (OS) and used them to study the full life cycle of plants. The Bulgarian-Russian-developed Svet Space Greenhouse (SG) system was upgraded on the Mir OS in 1996. The US developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS) greatly extends the range of environmental parameters monitored. The Svet-GEMS complex was used to grow a fully developed wheat crop during 1996. The growth rate and development of these plants compared well with earth grown plants indicating that the root zone water and oxygen stresses that have limited plant development in previous long-duration experiments have been overcome. However, management of the root environment during this experiment involved several significant changes in control settings as the relationship between the water delivery system, water status sensors, and the substrate changed during the growth cycles.     

The impact of culture on human and space development--new millennial challenge

The Space Age is causing new applications to the concept of culture, a human coping tool. The exploration and exploitation of outer space resources are altering human culture both on Earth and in orbit. For the first time in history, our species need not merely react and adapt to environment, but plan for a space culture appropriate for extraterrestrial migration. The impact of culture can be analyzed in terms of how space developments alter human perceptions and behavior on this planet; the emergence of a new culture to suit the orbital environment; the organizations that build spacecraft and deploy people aloft; and the technological systems created for spacefaring. This article presents a paradigm for analyzing some of the non-technical human factors involved in space undertakings. It also offers a method for classifying a culture according to ten categories which may be applied both to a macroculture, such as a lunar base; or a microculture, such as a space agency or crew. Human enterprise in space is viewed as both altering the species, and providing a challenge for expanded behavioral and biological scientific research on living and working in space.     

Long-duration space mission regenerative life support.

The paper deals with the construction of physical/chemical life support systems of orbiting space station Mir and the Russian segment of the international space station (ISS). Based on experience gained in development and long-term operation of systems for water recovery and air revitalization balance and energy/mass characteristics of promising life support systems (LSS) are analyzed. Physical/chemical life support systems with regenerative systems updated as a result of the operation on the ISS may be used at an initial phase of manned interplanetary missions.     

Optimum parameters of a gravitational satellite-stabilizer system

Dynamics of a satellite-stabilizer system is studied. It is supposed that there is a viscous friction in a hinge connecting two bodies, but there is no elasticity. The attitude motion in a plane of circular orbit is considered, and parameters are determined, at which natural oscillations near a stable equilibrium position in the orbital coordinate system are damped out most rapidly. The rate of transient processes is estimated by a value of the degree of stability of linearized equations of motion. The optimization of the degree of stability is sequentially performed in dimensionless damping coefficient (the first stage) and in inertial system parameters (the second stage). The result of the first stage is the partition of system parameter space into the regions, in each of which the maximum of the degree of stability is reached on a particular configuration of roots of the characteristic equation. It is shown at the second stage that the global maximum is reached at two points of parameter space, where one of system bodies degenerates into a plate, and the characteristic equation has four equal real roots.     

空间站有效载荷真空支持系统方案评述

有效载荷真空支持系统是空间有效载荷支持系统的重要组成部分,为空间有效载荷实验的顺利进行提供真空环境支持和保证。文章详细分析了国际空间站包括美国“命运号”实验舱（USL）、欧空局哥伦布轨道舱（APM）及日本实验舱（JEM）内的有效载荷真空支持系统方案及使用情况;对美国实验舱内的一号微重力材料科学机柜及微重力燃烧科学机柜内部专用的真空支持系统作了主要介绍;最后提出了我国空间站有效载荷真空支持系统的初步方案设想,即合理安排有效载荷实验进行次序,将废气排放子系统及真空资源子系统合二为一,以节约资源,提高可靠性。     

Lessons from half a century experience of Japanese solid rocketry since Pencil rocket

50 years have passed since a tiny rocket “Pencil” was launched horizontally at Kokubunji near Tokyo in 1955. Though there existed high level of rocket technology in Japan before the end of the second World War, it was not succeeded by the country after the War. Pencil therefore was the substantial start of Japanese rocketry that opened the way to the present stage.In the meantime, a rocket group of the University of Tokyo contributed to the International Geophysical Year in 1957–1958 by developing bigger rockets, and in 1970, the group succeeded in injecting first Japanese satellite OHSUMI into earth orbit. It was just before the launch of OHSUMI that Japan had built up the double feature system of science and applications in space efforts. The former has been pursued by ISAS (the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science) of the University of Tokyo, and the latter by NASDA (National Space Development Agency). This unique system worked quite efficiently because space activities in scientific and applicational areas could develop rather independently without affecting each other.Thus Japan's space science ran up rapidly to the international stage under the support of solid propellant rocket technology, and, after a 20 year technological introduction period from the US, a big liquid propellant launch vehicle, H-II, at last was developed on the basis of Japan's own technology in the early 1990's. On October 1, 2003, as a part of Governmental Reform, three Japanese space agencies were consolidated into a single agency, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), and Japan's space efforts began to walk toward the future in a globally coordinated fashion, including aeronautics, astronautics, space science, satellite technology, etc., at the same time. This paper surveys the history of Japanese rocketry briefly, and draws out the lessons from it to make a new history of Japan's space efforts more meaningful.     

Prospective life-science payloads

A viable spacelab programme is based on the thesis that biomedical specialists require a quantifiable, and possibly mechanistic, understanding of the significant changes observed in crew, in and after manned space flights. Only then can prophylaxis or atraumatic reversal be achieved (with potentially an added use to ameliorate qualitatively similar disease aspects on Earth). This approach could justify national funding to promote lead-up ground-based research as well as research and development for special equipment, of which the "spin-off" into clinical practice could well precede its first use in Spacelab. The requirement for "applied expediency" arises from the watershed met early in the evolution of a life-sciences programme. Initially, the facility of space flight provoked numerous valid experiments designed to test for, or quantitate, gravity-dependent mechanisms and their interaction with other agents, radiation, vibration, or absence of triggers for rhythmic patterns. In parallel, measurable parameters of man's function in space were being monitored, primarily to promote survival by remedial action when available. Monitoring data were then developed to find a critical mechanism feasible to testing. Often the rationale for such tests and experiments was that "man was there" and could, moreover, attend to several biological experiments in space! The watershed appeared when man in a Spacelab was shown as a hazard to the instrumentation, cleanliness, accuracy, thermal control, weight limits, etc. essential to the other disciplines. Other than the life sciences only the technological requirements of materials processing required a manned spacelab! So, life scientists have needed to rethink their payloads, and their constrictions, to plan for compatible load sharing. A composite of proposed biomedical projects related to apparently unanswered etiology of observed changes in returning astronauts will be used to illustrate the evolution of and possible answers to sample problems. The principles outlined, their moderation by expediency (with the untouched upon need for the enthusiastic involvement of biomedical potential in space projects) should remain our guidelines. This is in spite of the expected obsolescence of these specific projects within the next decade.     

Animal protein production modules in biological life support systems: novel combined aquaculture techniques based on the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.)

Based on the experiences made with the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) which was primarily deveoloped for long-term and multi-generation experiments with aquatic animals and plants in a space station highly effective fresh water recycling modules were elaborated utilizing a combination of ammonia oxidizing bacteria filters and higher plants. These exhibit a high effectivity to eliminate phosphate and anorganic nitrogen compounds and arc. in addidition. able to contribute to the oxygen supply of the aquatic animals. The C.E.B.A.S. filter system is able to keep a closed artificial aquatic ecosystem containing teleost fishes and water snails biologically stable for several month and to eliminate waste products deriving from degraded dead fishes without a decrease of the oxygen concentration down to less than 3.5 mg/l at 25 °C. More advanced C.E.B.A.S. filter systems, the BIOCURE filters, were also developed for utilization in semiintensive and intensive aquaculture systems for fishes. In fact such combined animal-plant aquaculture systems represent highly effective productions sites for human food if proper plant and fish species are selected The present papers elucidates ways to novel aquaculture systems in which herbivorous fishes are raised by feeding them with plant biomass produced in the BIOCURE filters and presents the scheme of a modification which utilizes a plant species suitable also for human nutrition. Special attention is paid to the benefits of closed aquaculture system modules which may be integrated into bioregenerative life support systems of a higher complexity for, e. g.. lunar or planetary bases including some psychologiccal aspects of the introduction of animal protein production into plant-based life support systems. Moreover, the basic reproductive biological problems of aquatic animal breeding under reduced gravity are explained leading to a disposition of essential research programs in this context.     

The development of the hardware for studying biological clock systems under microgravity conditions,using scorpions as animal models

The study of internal clock systems of scorpions in weightless conditions is the goal of the SCORPI experiment. SCORPI was selected for flight on the International Space Station (ISS) and will be mounted in the European facility BIOLAB, the European Space Agency (ESA) laboratory designed to support biological experiments on micro-organisms, cells, tissue, cultures, small plants and small invertebrates. This paper outlines the main features of a breadboard designed and developed in order to allow the analysis of critical aspects of the experiment. It is a complete tool to simulate the experiment mission on ground and it can be customised, adapted and tuned to the scientific requirements. The paper introduces the SCORPI-T experiment which represents an important precursor for the success of the SCORPI on BIOLAB. The capabilities of the hardware developed show its potential use for future similar experiments in space.     

Role of O.G. Gazenko in formation and advancement of space biology and medicine

Oleg G. Gazenko belongs to the noble cohort of pupils of well-known Russian physiologist L.A. Orbeli. He was one of the fathers of space biology and medicine, discipline in which he displayed his brilliant talents of experimenter and thinker. He was acknowledged for the investigations of spaceflight effects on living systems, the concept of medical operations system to support long-term piloted missions and implementation of biological researches that fostered the advance of space and gravitational biology. The analytical works of Oleg G. Gazenko are of imperishable significance for future researches to the benefit of space biomedicine.