The growing ‘securitization’ of outer space

Discussions of space security tend to recurrently return to the vexed issue of the ‘militarization’ and ‘weaponization’ of outer space. Debate over whether or not a sustainable definition can be maintained between these two concepts has been a feature of both academic and policy discourses, and has been particularly contentious with regard to new proposals for arms control in outer space. Yet, this paper argues, the militarization/weaponization debate fails to capture to vagaries of contemporary space policy with regard to understandings of ‘security’, and is in this sense an insufficient way of approaching the subject of space security in the first instance. Instead it is now more accurate to say that outer space is becoming ever more ‘securitized’: that is, access to space is now commonly framed as crucial to the military, economic and environmental security of leading states and international organizations.     

Smaller states and the new balance of power in space

The number of states capable of building, launching and operating satellites has grown significantly over the years. This article discusses how going to space in an egalitarian fashion may influence the current state of affairs related to the militarization and weaponization of outer space, the security postures of the already established space powers, and the global balance of power in general. Potential changes in the relationship between old and new spacefarers may instigate an entire shift in the understanding of threats and opportunities for international cooperation in space.     

Soviet proposals on the militarization of space

The USSR has submitted several proposals to the United Nations in recent years which are aimed at avoiding the militarization of outer space. This article examines three of the proposals and evaluates them in the context of existing treaties, to see whether or not they could resolve the political and legal problems which might arise. The reactions of the United Nations General Assembly and individual nations are also considered. The author concludes that several questions regarding the military aspects of space activity are left unresolved by the Soviet proposals.     

浅析高功率微波武器的研究与发展

随着外层空间日益军事化,作为反卫星武器的高功率微波武器的研究与发展备受关注,其军事价值日益显现.对高功率微波武器的作用效能及特点作了详细分析,重点评述了各主要军事强国在高功率微波武器方面的研究情况.最后分析了高功率微波武器的发展趋势.     

Arms control and disarmament in space: the rough road to Vienna 1984: Part I

This article examines the international legal and diplomatic questions relating to arms control and disarmament, focusing on space-based activities. These relate importantly to the development of anti-satellite satellites (ASATs) and ballistic missile defence systems (BMDs). Part I of the article examines the goal of ‘peaceful uses’ of outer space as elaborated in national policies and in international fora, the debate that has has taken place at the international level over the meaning and definition of peaceful purposes, legal manoeuvres, particularly in the UN, and US responses, and recent Soviet initiatives relating to space militarization. Part II will appear in the next issue, and will consider the US Presidential-Congressional dialogue on these questions and recent Presidential initiatives.     

Space and Soviet military planning

Most of the recent discussions concerning Soviet space activities focus on the new systems and emerging technologies, particularly those with military application. How the military capabilities of these systems and technologies will be used is equally important. Their employment will be guided by current Soviet thinking and policy concerning military actions in space. This policy has its origins in Soviet military doctrine which emphasizes offensive systems. Although the Soviet space programme denies having any military objectives, it is guided by a historical link with the Soviet military and directed by decisions made within the framework of Soviet doctrine. Additional insights into Soviet thinking concerning the militarization of space can be gained from recent treaties which the Soviets have signed concerning military space activities.     

Russian launch vehicles on the world market: A case-study of International joint ventures

This article examines the trend towards commercialization of Russian Space rockets via joint ventures with Western firms. It analyses the reasons for both sides' involvement (financial, competitive) and discusses the background, status and prospects of a number of specific joint ventures. The final section looks at whether Russia will find its space industry taken over by the West, but concludes that, as the producer of a successful, high-tech product, this is unlikely to be the case.     

国外低轨道卫星综述

由于地球低轨道更利于收集情报信息 ,大多被军事侦察卫星所占有。随着太空军事化趋势的日益增强 ,了解和认识当前的低轨道卫星较为必要。介绍了典型低轨道卫星的军事作用和运作机理 ,并给出了当前在轨低轨道卫星的技术参数。最后分析了其发展趋势     

Are current and future space technologies favourable to SSPS projects?

This viewpoint looks at the positive and negative prospects for the establishment of Space Solar Power Stations (SSPSs) from the standpoint of the way in which space technology has evolved since the concept was first proposed. While there are pressing arguments for alternatives to today’s energy sources, and technological advances have made construction and maintenance of SSPSs potentially easier and less expensive, it is argued that the general trend towards miniaturization in space, plus the probable difficulty of obtaining frequency allocations for SSPSs, militate against their realization. Further, the increasing militarization of space provides additional competition and could mean that SSPSs will never be launched for fear of becoming an enemy target. Nevertheless, SSPSs could have a future supplying electricity within the space environment itself.     

Buying Russian technology — pros and cons for the US programme

A marriage between Russian space technology and US space ambitions was unthinkable only a short time ago, but that potential union is now the talk of the town. With the dizzying pace of changes in US-Russian relationships, what is written here in July 1992 may well have changed by the time this article is published. Nevertheless, a glance at what the Russians are selling, what the USA may want to buy and the major policy issues involved is worth a look. Traditional cooperative ventures remain an important part of US-Russian space relations, but are not the focus of this article.     

China''s space policy: review and prospects

This article reviews the current status of the Chinese space programme, covering its military origins, launchers, applications satellites, manned spaceflight and exploration. It examines the growing commercialization of China's space activities and how far this is likely to be successful, especially in the light of MTCR constraints and other legal regulations. It is nonetheless concluded that commercialization, along with joint ventures with foreign companies, has been crucial to the development of China's space programme. However, the country still lacks the resources to become a first-rank space power.     

Exploration for the masses? Or joyrides for the ultra-rich? Prospects for space tourism

A space tourism industry appears to be about to take off. Businesses have announced plans to launch people into suborbital space for $200,000/person, with flights beginning as early as 2008. A brief review of the history of the idea of space tourism over the past four decades—and an awareness that many ventures have quietly shelved their grandiose plans—might aid thinking about the prospects for development of a safe and thriving space tourism industry. Today's space tourism model emphases the concept of luxury, and the lifestyle of hyper-consumption. It may be worth considering whether and how this conception of space tourism might affect the future of space exploration.     

The PCA Rules for dispute settlement in outer space: A significant step forward

Outer space activities have evolved significantly. While they were previously the exclusive domain of a restricted number of states, now thanks to technological advances and the easing of governmental restrictions, space activities are carried out on a much larger scale and involve subjects of both a governmental and non-governmental nature. Furthermore, the commercial uses of outer space are making space business increasingly profitable and attractive to potential investors. As the economic value of outer space activities, as well as the number of space actors grows, it is nearly inevitable that international disputes related to the use of outer space will occur. Until recently, international space law contained little dedicated machinery to settle international outer space-related disputes. This absence significantly weakened the applicability and enforceability of space law and contributed to a climate of uncertainty. In order to address these issues, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) adopted the Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities on 6 December 2011. The PCA Space Rules represent a significant development in the field of space law because they provide a voluntary and binding dispute settlement method accessible to all space actors and modeled on the specific legal and economic characteristics of space activities. This paper describes the genesis of the PCA Space Rules, assesses their content and innovative character, evaluates their possible implications for the settlement of outer space disputes, and argues that they should be positively received by the outer space community.     

Space technology in the third world : Commercialization and the spread of ballistic missiles

The recent enthusiastic initiatives in the USA to commercialize space activities are also likely to facilitate and accelerate Third World ventures in space. This article outlines the history of Third World space activities and points to the danger that these nations will use satellite launch technology for military applications. Competitive economic and political pressures are aiding the migration of older missile technology to Third World Nations. The author argues for the establishment of an International Missile Technology Regime, which would limit the transfer of space launch technology to nations which are in full compliance with the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.     

Current status of the Russian space programme

This paper surveys the status of Russian space activities in terms of budget, operational satellite systems, workforce and industrial capabilities. There is inequality between companies and particularly between various tiers of cooperation in production. In the current situation international cooperation, both in the form of joint non-commercial ventures and integration into the global space market, is considered vital for sustaining national space capabilities.     

Changing patterns of international cooperation in space: The Soviet factor

The new Soviet glasnost regarding international cooperation in space will clearly be one of several factors affecting traditional patterns of cooperation in the future. This article examines how the Soviet posture towards cooperation in international space ventures has changed, why the changes have occurred, and the probable consequences of those changes on traditional patterns of international cooperation in space.     

Developing countries and space: From awareness to participation

As space commercialization is becoming a reality, and with the growing tendency for such activity to be transferred to the private sector, it is time for developing countries to assume a role in space. Space law could be of help if the interpretation of terms such as ‘common heritage’ were agreed on and sensible rules for the regulation of competition in space elaborated. But it is up to the developing states themselves to become aware of the situation, educate their public and train their personnel through participation in cooperative space ventures with the developed world.     

The European Union draft Code of Conduct for outer space activities: An appraisal

The European Union draft Code of Conduct for outer space activities is one of the primary international initiatives, that are currently active, to enhance the safety, security and sustainability of outer space activities. Although the spirit underlying the instrument is commonly shared by space-faring countries, substantial disagreement exists among States as to some of its core provisions. This article proposes that the Code of Conduct should make a clear distinction between commercial activities and military activities, and adopt more balanced measures on the restriction of military activities in outer space.     

Commercial space development

A panel session on ‘Creative approaches to commercial joint ventures in space’ took place at the American Society of Public Administration National Conference, 28 March 1 April 1987. This report highlights the comments made by the panelists¹ on the steps NASA and US industry can take together to ensure US space leadership.     

卫星与深空动态场景实时仿真系统

卫星与深空动态场景的实时仿真对于航空航天、军事国防等领域有着重要意义。现提出了一个深空动态场景的绘制方法，该方法综合了计算机图形学和天文学的知识，建立了基于天文学星表的深空场景模型，计算出卫星及各星体的运行轨迹，实现了卫星目标和深空场景的真实感合成，并采用一系列加速绘制技术，最终实现了深宅动态场景的实时生成和交互式虚拟漫游。