Damage escape and repair in dried Chroococcidiopsis spp. from hot and cold deserts exposed to simulated space and martian conditions

The cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis, overlain by 3?mm of Antarctic sandstone, was exposed as dried multilayers to simulated space and martian conditions. Ground-based experiments were conducted in the context of Lichens and Fungi Experiments (EXPOSE-E mission, European Space Agency), which were performed to evaluate, after 1.5 years on the International Space Station, the survival of cyanobacteria (Chroococcidiopsis), lichens, and fungi colonized on Antarctic rock. The survival potential and the role played by protection and repair mechanisms in the response of dried Chroococcidiopsis cells to ground-based experiments were both investigated. Different methods were employed, including evaluation of the colony-forming ability, single-cell analysis of subcellular integrities based on membrane integrity molecular and redox probes, evaluation of the photosynthetic pigment autofluorescence, and assessment of the genomic DNA integrity with a PCR-based assay. Desiccation survivors of strain CCMEE 123 (coastal desert, Chile) were better suited than CCMEE 134 (Beacon Valley, Antarctica) to withstand cellular damage imposed by simulated space and martian conditions. Exposed dried cells of strain CCMEE 123 formed colonies, maintained subcellular integrities, and, depending on the exposure conditions, also escaped DNA damage or repaired the induced damage upon rewetting.     

Using computer graphics to enhance astronaut and systems safety.

Computer graphics is being employed at the NASA Johnson Space Center as a tool to perform rapid, efficient and economical analyses for man-machine integration, flight operations development and systems engineering. The Operator Station Design System (OSDS), a computer-based facility featuring a highly flexible and versatile interactive software package, PLAID, is described. This unique evaluation tool, with its expanding data base of Space Shuttle elements, various payloads, experiments, crew equipment and man models, supports a multitude of technical evaluations, including spacecraft and workstation layout, definition of astronaut visual access, flight techniques development, cargo integration and crew training. As OSDS is being applied to the Space Shuttle, Orbiter payloads (including the European Space Agency's Spacelab) and future space vehicles and stations, astronaut and systems safety are being enhanced. Typical OSDS examples are presented. By performing physical and operational evaluations during early conceptual phases. supporting systems verification for flight readiness, and applying its capabilities to real-time mission support, the OSDS provides the wherewithal to satisfy a growing need of the current and future space programs for efficient, economical analyses.     

Creating a European internal security strategy involving space applications

Space applications are used for countering a wide variety of external security threats but their use for the provision of internal security (for non-military threats like terrorism, organised crime or illegal immigration) is still largely neglected. Several steps have recently been taken to consider space applications for counter-terrorism and other internal security threats. In the context of the general call for a specific European security research programme, the European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP 7) is conducting several projects using space applications for fighting internal security threats. However, current attempts remain scattered across national and European initiatives, policy fields and pillars, institutional actors and actors involved in various projects. There is thus a strong need for a more integrated approach at the EU-level through a European Internal Security Strategy complementing the existing European Security Strategy. The US has been looking at the provision of homeland security for some time. A revision of existing structures in Europe should thus not neglect the dimension of transatlantic cooperation in this policy area.     

Competitiveness of the European space industry. Lessons from Europe's role in NATO

This article aims to illustrate how the predominant role of the US military space capabilities within NATO adversely affects the European space industry's competitiveness and performance, as compared with the USA space industry. Thus, first the intra-NATO specialization is illustrated, followed by an analysis of the economics of the space industry. The connection is made through an economics model whose results verify the hypothesis, and predicts that the recent commitment by the WEU to military space can improve the position of the European space industry, especially if followed by close cooperation between the WEU and ESA.     

Habitability design of European spacecraft Hermes--ergonomic aspects.

First results of a 3-D human body model conception adapted to C.A.D. studies is presented. This parametric model incorporating specific constraints due to weightlessness is well adapted to bring valuable answers to Human Factors Engineers, designing man-system interfaces of European spacecraft Hermes.     

Space for defence: A European vision

A common European defence policy is still at a very preliminary stage, and although some limited progress has recently been made, it is a politically sensitive issue. In contrast to scientific research or large industrial ventures such as aircraft development, where Europe has moved forward rather well, obstacles to further integration in defence and security matters are numerous. Space systems could be used to facilitate such integration as their duplication is costly and so much remains to be done in Europe in this field. A common European ‘vision’ for the role of space systems in security and defence thus needs to be developed. This article reviews the role of space in security and defence missions, the technology and industrial base Europe needs, and its capability and autonomy in achieving access to space. Space system vulnerability and the means of minimizing it are addressed, including measures to prevent the weaponization of space. The possible role of ESA in support of the European Defence Agency for defence space systems development is identified, along with the need for ad hoc organizations for operational exploitation. Ten recommendations are made that would permit progress at the European level, following the path already successfully achieved in the civilian domain.     

Europe without fractures: a Spanish view of the European Space Strategy

On 16 November 2000, the Council of the European Space Agency (ESA) meeting at Ministerial level and the European Research Council of the European Union (EU) gathered in Brussels to adopt in parallel two resolutions on a European Strategy for Space. This political impetus indicates a clear motivation to support the further development of the European space sector, based on a much closer collaboration between the two European institutions, thereby exploiting their respective competencies and synergies. This paper presents some Spanish viewpoints relative to the common European Strategy for Space of the EU and ESA. Spain is supportive of the new strategy and the paper describes how its co-ordinated approach could be translated into action across various European programmes.     

The recruitment and organizational integration of space personnel.

This paper describes the philosophy of selection of astronaut scientists. It deals mainly with psychological selection criteria oriented at the job demands. Generalizable results of the European selection campaign for Spacelab are reported. Additionally, some aspects of the organizational integration of astronauts are listed.     

The role of the European parliament in the development of a European union space policy

This paper investigates the role of the European Parliament (EP) in the development of the space policy of the EU (EUSP), an important policy area that has been neglected in the political science and EU studies literature. EUSP is the offspring of the European space policy which started as a purely intergovernmental affair, but gradually acquired a supranational dimension. Although the EP did little to initiate this process, it always supported the involvement of the EU in space, and it used both its formal and informal powers to affect and promote its development. Under the consultation procedure the EP managed to become a conditional agenda setter, and under co-decision an influential legislation maker. The changes it introduced in the European global navigation satellite and Earth observation programmes relate not only to the inter-institutional balance and its controlling powers, but to a series of substantive issues also. Consequently, the activism of the EP has played an important part in the development of the EUSP, even if it was not the main force behind its inception.     

Looking ahead: Science requirements for the U.S./International Space Station

During the next eight years the United States, European countries within the European Space Agency, Canada, and Japan will engage in the design and construction of facilities included in the current conceptual design of the U.S./International Space Station. The object will be to build a manned space facility capable of supporting scientific research, technological development, and commercial operations. This paper is directed towards an overview of the essential requirements for successful scientific use of the Space Station. Because specific supporting technologies will change so drastically before heavy use can begin, it is important to discuss the most fundamental aspects of user requirements; namely, (1) What are the characteristics of a remote, manned space facility that can promote first rate scientific use? (2) What does it take to achieve such a facility, and (3) What guidelines can be given such that once the facility is in operation it attracts the best possible scientific talent?     

The visual stress model--a psycho-physiological method for the evaluation of operational reliability of pilots and cosmonauts.

An experimental psycho-physiological method is presented for the evaluation of visual-cognitive performance preconditions and operational reliability of pilots and cosmonauts. As visual-cognitive stress are used tachistoscopically presented instrument symbols under conditions of individual speed of work and time pressure. The results of the compared extreme groups consisting of pilots with good and insufficient flight performance showed that the pilots with impairments to the quality of flight activity differ already before the test in their individual habitual characteristics and actual motivation, during the stress in their operational parameters, in the dimensions of their cardiorespiratory activation as well as in their efficiency and after the stress in their subjective experience of the stress. Conclusions are drawn for the evaluation of the aptitude of pilots and cosmonauts.     

QUASAT program: The ESA reflector

QUASAT is a joint ESA/NASA cooperative mission for a free-flying VLBI antenna to be used with the U.S. and European ground arrays. The spaceborn reflector shall have a diameter of 15 m or more and shall operate at three frequencies: 1.6, 5 and 22 GHz. These requirements are very stringent and very difficult to satisfy. The reflector proposed by the European Space Agency as part of the Quasat assessment study shall be presented. Such reflector shall use the Inflatable Space Rigidized technology under development within ESA. Results of the performances envisaged from such design shall be discussed together with the manufacturing and testing problems envisaged for such reflector. Results derived by different reflector design but using the same Inflatable Space Rigidized technology shall also be presented.     

Defining a European space research policy: The role of the European Space Science Committee

The willingness of the European Union (EU) to acquire an important position by defining a well articulated space policy for Europe requires a redefinition of the roles of the various actors of this policy. This has been demonstrated at the last ESA Ministerial Conference despite the financial difficulties encountered by all spacefaring European countries. The European Space Science Committee (ESSC), an associated Committee of the European Science Foundation (ESF), actively participated in the elaboration of such a policy by presenting the point of view of the space scientific community and making recommendations to ensure that scientific space research is appropriately accounted for in overall European space policy. The ESSC is briefly described along with its activities and contributions to the definition of a European space policy.     

Thermomechanical behaviour of CFRP tubes for space structures

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) tubes, with the increasing dimensions and performances requested for space structures, are becoming a basic building element of boom-type structures for large precision reflectors, towers and payload support structures such as the Modular Payload Support Structure, the Shuttle Pallet Satellite or the European Retrievable Carrier. It is very important for such applications that the CFRP tubes have minimum thermal distortions and very high stiffness.An extensive test program was performed to characterise the CFRP tubes that are used for such applications. Measurements of coefficient of thermal expansions, thermal conductivity, thermal cycling, microstructure behaviour, as well as mechanical tests and outgassing tests were performed. The main purpose was to correlate the microcracking with the thermal cycling and the coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity.These types of activities for the CFRP tubes were performed for the first time in Europe and important results were found, especially in the area of microcracking generation and correlation with engineering parameters. The influence of the thermal cycling speed on the microcracking was also studied. Most of the tests were conducted at ESTEC (European Space Research & Technology Centre, Holland) by the European Space Agency in the frame of the technology research activities.     

A European military space community: Reality or dream?

Europe is faced with several essential policy decisions with regard to the exploitation of space technology. Important issues are: the relations between civilian and military uses of outer space, employment opportunities, industrial and commercial interests, European security and international stability, regional and international cooperation. Concerted action is required for political reasons and in order to achieve the necessary scientific, technological and economic critical masses. Another major policy issue is, therefore, whether Europe should expand its space venture in the framework of a European military space community as proposed by France, through national or bilateral programmes, by participating in the US SDI research, or through NATO, the Independent European Programme Group, the Western European Union, or the European Space Agency.     

Choices for Europe

The first European space conference was held in Paris from 22 to 24 April 1991. There were disappointingly few continental European delegates, which is perhaps explained by the fact that these people already know what is happening on the European space scene, something a variety of speakers attempted to cover.     

The Columbus programme : European steps towards the considered development of near-Earth space

The European Space Agency's Columbus Programme is nearing the end of its study phase and European ministers now need to take decisions on proceeding with the development phase. Columbus is directed towards the creation of an autonomous European space capability, and at the same time towards furthering genuine partnership with the USA on the international Space Station. This article reviews the elements which make up the Columbus Programme, and examines their probable developments over the next few years. The need for ESA to ensure coherence among the major European space initiatives is stressed.     

SSC microgravity sounding rocket program MASER.

The Swedish Microgravity Sounding Rocket program MASER is presented. Especially the MASER 1 payload is depicted, but also an outlook for the future possibilities within the Short Duration Flight Opportunities is given. Furthermore the coordination and relation with the German TEXUS program is touched upon. With the two TEXUS and MASER programs--possibly together with other fascinating projects like M-ARIES and MG-M-ARIANNE--the microgravity scientific community in Europe should get reasonable amounts of flight opportunities in preparation for the big space venture the European Space Station.     

Effects of the long-term ESA programme on employment : Eurospace

European countries will be urged to undertake a new space programme, prepared under the direction of the European Space Agency (ESA). Can the financial efforts requested of them be considered as a profitable investment? This article examines the historical and potential effects of the European space programmes on employment, both within and outside the space sector.