The ESA and US reports on space debris : Platform for future policy initiatives

This article examines the development of policy on space debris in the European Space Agency and the USA, comments on its regulatory effectiveness, and proposes further recommendations for consideration when developing future space debris policy. The author argues that the international community must work towards a policy which incorporates an environmental perspective, and discusses the principles which should inform such a perspective.     

The European Defence Agency and EU military space policy: Whose space odyssey?

This paper analyses the growing involvement of the European Defence Agency (EA) in the field of space, suggesting that this is symptomatic of the greater importance now being placed on military space by the European Union. It charts the history of the agency in general and its role in space in particular, delineating the many synergetic relations it has with other space-related institutions at EU level. It argues that EDA is as much a response to socioeconomic as strategic considerations, and that it acts to protect European competitiveness in the arms field, thereby highlighting the rising significance of EU military space policy for European security and military institutions.     

Towards an EU industrial policy for the space sector – Lessons from Galileo

The rise of the EU as an actor in the European and world space theatres, in its various roles as initiator, owner and operator of large-scale programmes such as Galileo and GMES, has raised a number of questions with regard to industrial policy. Based on the experiences from the Galileo programme's procurement round in the Full Operational Capability (FOC) phase and on the present discussions on space industrial policy within the EU, this paper argues that, whereas the EU's political ambitions in space have been discussed and become reasonably well defined, the specific policy tools and legal instruments to put them into practice are far from complete. First, an unequivocal industrial policy for the space sector needs to be defined that reconciles the Union's political ambitions with the economic specificities of the space sector. At present, this is a work in progress, with opinions diverging between member states. Second, both logically and temporally, these policy decisions need to be translated into legal instruments that allow their implementation. This implies the development of made-to-measure funding instruments and procurement rules. We conclude by emphasising the need for a sector-specific industrial policy as an integral part of the EU's space policy.     

Carpe diem: Europe must make a genuine space policy now

This article examines the current effort to establish a ‘European space policy’. The authors place this effort in the context of the experience of the 2003 Green and White Papers, the subsequent stalling of the Constitutional Treaty for the EU, and reductions in the EU's financial perspectives. They argue that, despite post-referenda malaise and systemic inertia on the part of several member states, adoption of a space policy is long overdue and should not merely seek to rearrange what is already there or expose yet again what is being done. A full-blooded policy setting in train fundamental change is needed, justifying a political decision at the level of the European Council. The article then offers criteria such a policy should fulfil as well as items the authors view as essential content. They briefly explore issues which could become stumbling blocks but which can be accommodated within the kind of policy this article advocates.     

The USSR's prudent space policy

Soviet space policy has long been viewed in the West as militaristic and aimed at achieving superiority, a situation which is abetted by the secrecy in which Soviet space activities are shrouded. This article argues, however, that Soviet space policy is essentially prudent and conservative, and based on exploiting existing technology to the maximum. Whilst it has provided the USSR with an impressive space potential, it does not mean that the USSR is ahead of the USA in space. Nevertheless, in the future the USSR is likely to undertake more international cooperation and offer commercial launch services.     

Taking space to the public

The UK space industry is an important part of the British economy and likely to become more so, but it needs well-educated graduates, government support and investment. Such an effort would be aided by an educated public. Education is an important part of a successful space industry policy. The Space Education Council, supported by the BNSC, is doing important work talking to the public about space. This article argues that there is a need for more space education work and reports on the Space Education Council's recent symposium.     

Defining a European space research policy: The role of the European Space Science Committee

The willingness of the European Union (EU) to acquire an important position by defining a well articulated space policy for Europe requires a redefinition of the roles of the various actors of this policy. This has been demonstrated at the last ESA Ministerial Conference despite the financial difficulties encountered by all spacefaring European countries. The European Space Science Committee (ESSC), an associated Committee of the European Science Foundation (ESF), actively participated in the elaboration of such a policy by presenting the point of view of the space scientific community and making recommendations to ensure that scientific space research is appropriately accounted for in overall European space policy. The ESSC is briefly described along with its activities and contributions to the definition of a European space policy.     

Space exploration policy: Towards an operational vision

This article examines the historical and social context of space exploration policy. It seeks to reconcile a contradiction between the visionary grandeur of space and public perceptions of space exploration as the province of a narrowly-focused political interest group. The author argues that perceptions of the space age are artificially restricted by dating its origins to Sputnik and Apollo and allowing it to be dominated by science and technology objectives devoid of a more encompassing social framework. Guiding principles for developing space exploration activities in a broader conceptual and operational framework are offered.     

Administrative reforms and the policy logics of Japanese space policy

The Japanese administrative reform which took place in recent years integrated NASDA and ISAS to create a larger space agency. Why was such an agency called for? What was the purpose behind the administrative reform? This article examines the motivations, objectives and responses to the reform process by using policy logic and institutional analysis to examine the evolution of the Japanese space programme. It argues that the reform aimed to rationalize the national administrative system and salvage the government from financial crisis. Thus, the reform was not designed to strengthen space activities in Japan, and as a result, Japanese space policy making is confused.     

A security space capability for Europe? Implications for US policy

As the European Union takes tentative steps towards creating a “rapid reaction force” able to operate independently of NATO, an important question is what capabilities that force must have in order to operate effectively. Among those capabilities is the use of space systems for communications and intelligence applications. This article examines the prospects for an independent security space capability in Europe, and the implications of the emerging European interest in space autonomy for US policy.     

Economics of space and the role of government

The author was a member of the House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology which conducted and enquiry into UK space policy. He argues that the industrial and technological case for space put to the Committee was insufficiently underpinned by reasoned argument. The article first examines the economic case forgovernment involvement in space. The role of economic analysis is examined; it is concluded that, except in the case of space applications, quantified analysis is usually misleading. In the light of this discussion, the technological case for space and the problems of commercialization are examined.     

Space station — the new frontier

The exciting challenge of building a permanent space station has been taken up by the USA, and participation in its development has been offered to the USA's allies. European countries are faced with the dilemma of whether to cooperate or to try to develop an autonomous approach. This article discusses the opportunities for Europe in participating closely in the US project — particularly in providing pressurized modules based on the Columbus programme — and argues that it is an opportunity not to be missed.     

Space for defence: A European vision

A common European defence policy is still at a very preliminary stage, and although some limited progress has recently been made, it is a politically sensitive issue. In contrast to scientific research or large industrial ventures such as aircraft development, where Europe has moved forward rather well, obstacles to further integration in defence and security matters are numerous. Space systems could be used to facilitate such integration as their duplication is costly and so much remains to be done in Europe in this field. A common European ‘vision’ for the role of space systems in security and defence thus needs to be developed. This article reviews the role of space in security and defence missions, the technology and industrial base Europe needs, and its capability and autonomy in achieving access to space. Space system vulnerability and the means of minimizing it are addressed, including measures to prevent the weaponization of space. The possible role of ESA in support of the European Defence Agency for defence space systems development is identified, along with the need for ad hoc organizations for operational exploitation. Ten recommendations are made that would permit progress at the European level, following the path already successfully achieved in the civilian domain.     

The UK parliamentary space committee: The emergence of a space lobby?

In the past few years the UK has become increasingly active as the financial conscience of the European Space Agency. This is not because the UK government has a wish to spend more on its national space effort; it is because it remains unconvinced of the benefits of certain European space activities, notably manned endeavours. In the absence of an effective UK space lobby, the government's policies have remained largely unchallenged. This article traces the growth of the Parliamentary Space Committee in the context of developments in recent European space policy and highlights the need for an active UK space lobby.     

ISU design projects : A new instrument for shaping global space policy?

The author argues that students attending the International Space University (ISU) are becoming a force to be reckoned with in space activities thanks to their enthusiasm, dedication and their Design Projects tackling major technological issues. This article reviews previous projects, before focusing on those of 1993 and 1994, and analyses whether they can be seen as agents for change in space policy making. Key ‘selling points’ are the ‘students’ non-rigid approach to thinking and doing, their refusal to believe in the intractability of any problem and the appeal their novel coalition may have for political leaders.     

Enhancing Europe's capabilities in space research and technology: Towards a European Space Board

With the proposed implementation of a European space policy and the prospect of several major undertakings in the space domain the European Union should decide to set up a high-level independent body and confer on it the authority and means to provide expert advice on space-related subjects to its institutions, policy makers and agencies, as well as to the space research community. Although the political and legislative situation in the USA is different from that in Europe, such a body has existed there since 1959 and has proven most useful. The current situation in Europe is analysed and the arguments for setting up such a structure are presented. It is suggested that the foundations for this new advisory structure can be found in the existing European Space Science Committee, the European Science Foundation's expert committee on space research. A structure and remit is proposed for such a body and elements of its mode and means of operations are discussed.     

The contest for leadership in East Asia: Japanese and Chinese approaches to outer space

Japan and China, as two advanced spacefaring nations in Asia-Pacific region, are often referred to as rivals in space. China's successful manned space launch program in 2003 and ASAT test in 2007 were considered as turning points which potentially introduces a “space race in Asia”. This article argues that there are three defining arenas in a space race: competition for prestige or soft power, competition over military capability or hard power, and competition of international services or public goods. It analyzes the objectives, norms and logics of space policy in Japan and China, and argues that these two countries have quite different thinking over what to do in space, explaining that they are playing different games in the first two arenas. However, Japan and China are competing for leadership and influence over the region. APRSAF and APSCO, two similar regional space organizations, are the vehicles for this competition. It concludes that there is a space race only in the third arena as a competition for leadership in Asia.     

CNES—the way forward: A new strategic plan

This article is based on the French space centre's (CNES) new strategic plan, which marks a shift in strategy. Guided in particular by changed political circumstances and the growing maturity of the space industry, the agency plans to renegotiate its relationships in all major sectors. While the inevitability of European integration and hence cooperation is acknowledged, there is a firm commitment to ensuring that French national and foreign policy is well served.     

A European military space community: Reality or dream?

Europe is faced with several essential policy decisions with regard to the exploitation of space technology. Important issues are: the relations between civilian and military uses of outer space, employment opportunities, industrial and commercial interests, European security and international stability, regional and international cooperation. Concerted action is required for political reasons and in order to achieve the necessary scientific, technological and economic critical masses. Another major policy issue is, therefore, whether Europe should expand its space venture in the framework of a European military space community as proposed by France, through national or bilateral programmes, by participating in the US SDI research, or through NATO, the Independent European Programme Group, the Western European Union, or the European Space Agency.