A status report on the characterization of the microgravity environment of the International Space Station

A primary objective of the International Space Station is to provide a long-term quiescent environment for the conduct of scientific research for a variety of microgravity science disciplines. Since continuous human presence on the space station began in November 2000 through the end of Increment-6, over 1260 hours of crew time have been allocated to research. However, far more research time has been accumulated by experiments controlled on the ground. By the end of the time period covered by this paper (end of Increment-6), the total experiment hours performed on the station are well over 100,000 hours (Expedition 6 Press Kit: Station Begins Third Year of Human Occupation, Boeing/USA/NASA, October 25, 2002). This paper presents the results of the on-going effort by the Principal Investigator Microgravity Services project, at NASA Glenn Research Center, in Cleveland, Ohio, to characterize the microgravity environment of the International Space Station in order to keep the microgravity scientific community apprised of the reduced gravity environment provided by the station for the performance of space experiments. This paper focuses on the station microgravity environment for Increments 5 and 6. During that period over 580 Gbytes of acceleration data were collected, out of which over 34,790 hours were analyzed. The results presented in this paper are divided into two sections: quasi-steady and vibratory. For the quasi-steady analysis, over 7794 hours of acceleration data were analyzed, while over 27,000 hours were analyzed for the vibratory analysis. The results of the data analysis are presented in this paper in the form of a grand summary for the period under consideration. For the quasi-steady acceleration response, results are presented in the form of a 95% confidence interval for the station during "normal microgravity mode operations" for the following three attitudes: local vertical local horizontal, X-axis perpendicular to the orbit plane and the Russian torque equilibrium attitude. The same analysis was performed for the station during "non-microgravity mode operations" to assess the station quasi-steady acceleration environment over a long period of time. The same type of analysis was performed for the vibratory, but a 95th percentile benchmark was used, which shows the overall acceleration magnitude during Increments 5 and 6. The results, for both quasi-steady and vibratory acceleration response, show that the station is not yet meeting the microgravity requirements during the microgravity mode operations. However, it should be stressed that the requirements apply only at assembly complete, whereas the results presented below apply up to the station's configuration at the end of Increment-6.     

Institute for space biomedicine opens in Sheffield,UK

The Institute for Space Biomedicine began work in October 1987, aiming to make a major contribution to our understanding of maintaining human fitness during space flight. Through animal tests, our knowledge of the effects of microgravity, radiation and confinement can be expanded, so that life support systems in space can be further developed. The Deputy Director of the Institute explains its goals.     

航天员微重力作业训练系统重力补偿控制策略

针对航天员微重力作业训练系统的重力场补偿控制这一关键技术,进行了理论和实验研究。分析了模拟微重力环境的机理,确定了微重力作业训练系统的总体结构方案,提出了一种基于电流反馈的重力补偿控制及多干扰力补偿控制策略。通过虚拟重力补偿控制实验,验证了在地面环境、动态作业过程中,模拟物体在不同空间重力加速度环境下的运动规律,实现了在重力方向模拟空间环境下物体移动的作业训练效果。研究成果为在地面实现三维作业训练系统的控制奠定了基础。     

The human cardiovascular system during space flight

Purpose of the work is to analyze and to summarize the data of investigations into human hemodynamics performed over 20 years aboard orbital stations Salyut-7 and Mir with participation of 26 cosmonauts on space flights (SF) from 8 to 438 days in duration. The ultrasonic techniques and occlusive plethysmography demonstrated dynamics of changes in the cardiovascular system during SF of various durations. The parameters of general hemodynamics, the pumping function of the heart and arterial circulation in the brain remained stable in all the space flights; however, there were alterations in peripheral circulation associated with blood redistribution and hypovolemie in microgravity. The anti-gravity distribution of the vascular tone decayed gradually as unneeded. The most considerable changes were observed in leg vessels, equally in arteries (decrease in resistance) and veins (increase in maximum capacity). The lower body negative pressure test (LBNP) revealed deterioration of the gravity-dependent reactions that changed for the worse as SF duration extended. The cardiovascular deconditioning showed itself as loss of descent acceleration tolerance and orthostatic instability in the postflight period.     

Initial characterization of the microgravity environment of the international space station: increments 2 through 4

The primary objective of the International Space Station (ISS) is to provide a long-term quiescent environment for the conduct of scientific research for a variety of microgravity science disciplines. This paper reports to the microgravity scientific community the results of an initial characterization of the microgravity environment on the International Space Station for increments 2 through 4. During that period almost 70,000 hours of station operations and scientific experiments were conducted. 720 hours of crew research time were logged aboard the orbiting laboratory and over half a terabyte of acceleration data were recorded and much of that was analyzed. The results discussed in this paper cover both the quasi-steady and vibratory acceleration environment of the station during its first year of scientific operation. For the quasi-steady environment, results are presented and discussed for the following: the space station attitudes Torque Equilibrium Attitude and the X-Axis Perpendicular to the Orbital Plane; station docking attitude maneuvers; Space Shuttle joint operation with the station; cabin de-pressurizations and the station water dumps. For the vibratory environment, results are presented for the following: crew exercise, docking events, and the activation/de-activation of both station life support system hardware and experiment hardware. Finally, a grand summary of all the data collected aboard the station during the 1-year period is presented showing where the overall quasi-steady and vibratory acceleration magnitude levels fall over that period of time using a 95th percentile benchmark.     

Early renal changes in 45 degrees HDT rats

Background: Both microgravity and simulated microgravity models, such as the 45HDT (45 degrees head-down tilt), cause a redistribution of body fluids indicating a possible adaptive process to the microgravity stressor. Understanding the physiological processes that occur in microgravity is a first step to developing countermeasures to stop its harmful effects, i.e., (edema, motion sickness) during long-term space flights. Hypothesis: Because of the kidneys' functional role in the regulation of fluid volume in the body, it plays a key role in the body's adaptation to microgravity. Methods: Rats were injected intramuscularly with a radioactive tracer and then lightly anesthetized in order to facilitate their placement in the 45HDT position. They were then placed in the 45HDT position using a specially designed ramp (45HDT group) or prone position (control group) for an experimental time period of 1 h. During this period, the 99mTc-DTPA (technetium-labeled diethylenepentaacetate, MW=492 amu, physical half-life of 6.02 h) radioactive tracer clearance rate was determined by measuring gamma counts per minute. The kidneys were then fixed and sectioned for electron microscopy. A point counting method was used to quantitate intracellular spaces of the kidney proximal tubules. Results: 45HDT animals show a significantly (p=0.0001) increased area in the interstitial space of the proximal tubules. Conclusions: There are significant changes in the kidneys during a 1 h exposure to a simulated microgravity environment that consist primarily of anatomical alterations in the kidney proximal tubules. The kidneys also appear to respond differently to the initial periods of head-down tilt.     

Exposure to acceleration during manned spaceflight

Space flight is normally associated with exposure to reduced acceleration (microgravity) and the medical consequences are well described. However, it inevitably also requires periods of increased acceleration during ascent and descent. These periods, although short in comparison to the length of the flight, are classified as long-duration by physiologists. The biological consequences for man [text incomplete]     

Microgravity measurement assembly (MMA) for spacelab module missions

The microgravity measurement assembly (MMA) is a precision measurement facility for ground and on-orbit disturbance accelerations on board Spacelab, being currently under development by MBB/ERNO under DFVLR contract. MMA is using a new generation of micromechanical acceleration detectors developed by CSEM under ESTEC contract. Small dimensions of the triaxial sensor packages allow for installation very close to scientific experiments; mass is significantly reduced compared to conventional systems. Six or more of these mini-sensor packages are installed at the most g-sensitive experiments of Spacelab Module Missions. Acceleration and housekeeping data are processed in real time by a dedicated microcomputer and transmitted to the ground. Thus, for the first time, synchronized and comparable precision acceleration data are available in real time on ground for on-line judgement of the microgravity environment desired for experiment success, offering the possibility, for example of experiment repetition in case of excessive g-disturbances. Furthermore, MMA allows for immediate feedback to the crew concerning the microgravity effects of their dynamic behavior, with the aim of crew training towards lower disturbances. An additional mobile sensor package can be installed at vibration sources, e.g. pumps, centrifuges etc. or any arbitrary location inside the Spacelab Module. An impact hammer can be used together with MMA in order to measure in-flight structural transfer functions. The MMA on-board system and ground station and its planned utilization for the German Spacelab Mission D-2 is described.     

French research program on the physiological problems caused by weightlessness. Use of the primate model

The need to acquire a better knowledge of the main biological problems induced by microgravity implies--in addition to human experimentation--the use of animal models, and primates seem to be particularly well adapted to this type of research. The major areas of investigation to be considered are the phospho-calcium metabolism and the metabolism of supporting tissues, the hydroelectrolytic metabolism, the cardiovascular function, awakeness, sleep-awakeness cycles, the physiology of equilibrium and the pathophysiology of space sickness. Considering this program, the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches de Medecine Aerospatiale, under the sponsorship of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, developed both a program of research on restrained primates for the French-U.S. space cooperation (Spacelab program) and for the French-Soviet space cooperation (Bio-cosmos program), and simulation of the effects of microgravity by head-down bedrest. Its major characteristics are discussed in the study.     

Responses of haloarchaea to simulated microgravity

Various effects of microgravity on prokaryotes have been recognized in recent years, with the focus on studies of pathogenic bacteria. No archaea have been investigated yet with respect to their responses to microgravity. For exposure experiments on spacecrafts or on the International Space Station, halophilic archaea (haloarchaea) are usually embedded in halite, where they accumulate in fluid inclusions. In a liquid environment, these cells will experience microgravity in space, which might influence their viability and survival. Two haloarchaeal strains, Haloferax mediterranei and Halococcus dombrowskii, were grown in simulated microgravity (SMG) with the rotary cell culture system (RCCS, Synthecon). Initially, salt precipitation and detachment of the porous aeration membranes in the RCCS were observed, but they were avoided in the remainder of the experiment by using disposable instead of reusable vessels. Several effects were detected, which were ascribed to growth in SMG: Hfx. mediterranei's resistance to the antibiotics bacitracin, erythromycin, and rifampicin increased markedly; differences in pigmentation and whole cell protein composition (proteome) of both strains were noted; cell aggregation of Hcc. dombrowskii was notably reduced. The results suggest profound effects of SMG on haloarchaeal physiology and cellular processes, some of which were easily observable and measurable. This is the first report of archaeal responses to SMG. The molecular mechanisms of the effects induced by SMG on prokaryotes are largely unknown; haloarchaea could be used as nonpathogenic model systems for their elucidation and in addition could provide information about survival during lithopanspermia (interplanetary transport of microbes inside meteorites).     

Parabolic maneuvers of the Swiss Air Force fighter jet F-5E as a research platform for cell culture experiments in microgravity

Long-term sensitivity of human cells to reduced gravity has been supposed since the first Apollo missions and was demonstrated during several space missions in the past. However, little information is available on primary and rapid gravi-responsive elements in mammalian cells. In search of rapid-responsive molecular alterations in mammalian cells, short-term microgravity provided by parabolic flight maneuvers is an ideal way to elucidate such initial and primary effects. Modern biomedical research at the cellular and molecular level requires frequent repetition of experiments that are usually performed in sequences of experiments and analyses. Therefore, a research platform on Earth providing frequent, easy and repeated access to real microgravity for cell culture experiments is strongly desired. For this reason, we developed a research platform onboard the military fighter jet aircraft Northrop F-5E “Tiger II”. The experimental system consists of a programmable and automatically operated system composed of six individual experiment modules, placed in the front compartment, which work completely independent of the aircraft systems. Signal transduction pathways in cultured human cells can be investigated after the addition of an activator solution at the onset of microgravity and a fixative or lysis buffer after termination of microgravity. Before the beginning of a regular military training flight, a parabolic maneuver was executed. After a 1 g control phase, the parabolic maneuver starts at 13,000 ft and at Mach 0.99 airspeed, where a 22 s climb with an acceleration of 2.5g is initiated, following a free-fall ballistic Keplerian trajectory lasting 45 s with an apogee of 27,000 ft at Mach 0.4 airspeed. Temperature, pressure and acceleration are monitored constantly during the entire flight. Cells and activator solutions are kept at 37 °C during the entire experiment until the fixative has been added. The parabolic flight profile provides up to 45 s of microgravity at a quality of 0.05g in all axes. Access time is 30 min before take-off; retrieval time is 30 min after landing. We conclude that using military fighter jets for microgravity research is a valuable tool for frequent and repeated cell culture experiments and therefore for state-of-the art method of biomedical research.     

Effects of Microgravity on Human Physiology and Ground-Based Models for Space Physiological Studies

With the development of manned spaceflight, more and more researches are involved in the area of gravitation physiology. When astronauts are exposed to microgravity, a series of special physiological or pathological changes will occur, which will start self-regulation mechanisms to reduce abnormalities and help the organism to better adapt to microgravity. However, these adaptive changes may also induce degradation or damage to physiological functions. This paper summarizes the physiological effects of microgravity on the human body from the aspects of skeletal and mineral metabolism, muscle structure and function, vestibular functions, cardiovascular function and pulmonary function, as well as expounds some commonly used ground-based space analogies. The paper will provide a reference for further study on the physiological effects of microgravity.     

Recent NASA research accomplishments aboard the ISS

The activation of the US Laboratory Module "Destiny" on the International Space Station (ISS) in February 2001 launched a new era in microgravity research. Destiny provides the environment to conduct long-term microgravity research utilizing human intervention to assess, report, and modify experiments real time. As the only available pressurized space platform, ISS maximizes today's scientific resources and substantially increases the opportunity to obtain much longed-for answers on the effects of microgravity and long-term exposure to space. In addition, it evokes unexpected questions and results while experiments are still being conducted, affording time for changes and further investigation. While building and outfitting the ISS is the main priority during the current ISS assembly phase, seven different space station crews have already spent more than 2000 crew hours on approximately 80 scientific investigations, technology development activities, and educational demonstrations.     

Response and adaptation of bone cells to simulated microgravity

Bone loss induced by microgravity during space flight is one of the most deleterious factors on astronaut’s health and is mainly attributed to an unbalance in the process of bone remodeling. Studies from the space microgravity have demonstrated that the disruption of bone remodeling is associated with the changes of four main functional bone cells, including osteoblast, osteoclast, osteocyte, and mesenchymal stem cells. For the limited availability, expensive costs and confined experiment conditions for conducting space microgravity studies, the mechanism of bone cells response and adaptation to microgravity is still unclear. Therefore, some ground-based simulated microgravity methods have been developed to investigate the bioeffects of microgravity and the mechanisms. Here, based on our studies and others, we review how bone cells (osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes and mesenchymal stem cells) respond and adapt to simulated microgravity.     

A review of muscle atrophy in microgravity and during prolonged bed rest

With the prospect of long duration space missions in Earth orbit or to Mars, there is a need for adequate information on the physiological adaptations that will occur. One consequence of prolonged exposure to microgravity is muscle atrophy (loss of muscle mass). After a long duration space flight, muscle atrophy along with skeletal calcium loss would affect the capacity of astronauts to re-adapt to gravity on return to Earth. Of importance are any countermeasures which can attenuate the adaptive responses to microgravity. Experimentation is difficult in space with small subject numbers and mission constraints. Prolonged bed rest using healthy volunteers is used as an Earth-based model to simulate the muscle atrophy which occurs in the microgravity environment.     

Considerations for development of countermeasures for physiological decrements associated with long-duration space missions

Countermeasures are necessary to offset or minimize the deleterious changes in human physiology resulting from long duration space flight. Exposure to microgravity alters musculoskeletal, neurosensory, and cardiovascular systems with resulting deconditioning that may compromise crew health and performance. Maintaining health and fitness at acceptable levels is critical for preserving performance capabilities required to accomplish specific mission tasks (e.g.—extravehicular activity) and to optimize performance after landing. To enable the goals of the exploration program, NASA is developing a new suite of exercise hardware such as the improved loading device, the SchRED. This presentation will update the status of current countermeasures, correlate hardware advances with improvements in exercise countermeasures, and discuss future activities for safe and productive exploration missions.     

Short duration microgravity experiments in physical and life sciences during parabolic flights: the first 30 ESA campaigns

Aircraft parabolic flights provide repetitively up to 20 s of reduced gravity during ballistic flight manoeuvres. Parabolic flights are used to conduct short microgravity investigations in Physical and Life Sciences, to test instrumentation and to train astronauts before a space flight. The European Space Agency (ESA) has organized since 1984 thirty parabolic flight campaigns for microgravity research experiments utilizing six different airplanes. More than 360 experiments were successfully conducted during more than 2800 parabolas, representing a cumulated weightlessness time of 15 h 30 m. This paper presents the short duration microgravity research programme of ESA. The experiments conducted during these campaigns are summarized, and the different airplanes used by ESA are shortly presented. The technical capabilities of the Airbus A300 'Zero-G' are addressed. Some Physical Science, Technology and Life Science experiments performed during the last ESA campaigns with the Airbus A300 are presented to show the interest of this unique microgravity research tool to complement, support and prepare orbital microgravity investigations.     

The future of space medicine.

In November 2000, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its partners in the International Space Station (ISS) ushered in a new era of space flight: permanent human presence in low-Earth orbit. As the culmination of the last four decades of human space flight activities. the ISS focuses our attention on what we have learned to date. and what still must be learned before we can embark on future exploration endeavors. Space medicine has been a primary part of our past success in human space flight, and will continue to play a critical role in future ventures. To prepare for the day when crews may leave low-Earth orbit for long-duration exploratory missions, space medicine practitioners must develop a thorough understanding of the effects of microgravity on the human body, as well as ways to limit or prevent them. In order to gain a complete understanding and create the tools and technologies needed to enable successful exploration. space medicine will become even more of a highly collaborative discipline. Future missions will require the partnership of physicians, biomedical scientists, engineers, and mission planners. This paper will examine the future of space medicine as it relates to human space exploration: what is necessary to keep a crew alive in space, how we do it today, how we will accomplish this in the future, and how the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plans to achieve future goals.     

The effects of prolonged weightlessness and reduced gravity environments on human survival

The manned exploration of the solar system and the surfaces of some of the smaller planets and larger satellites requires that we are able to keep the adverse human physiological response to long term exposure to near zero and greatly reduced gravity environments within acceptable limits consistent with metabolic function. This paper examines the physiological changes associated with microgravity conditions with particular reference to the weightless demineralizatoin of bone (WDB). It is suggested that many of these changes are the result of physical/mechanical processes and are not primarily a medical problem. There are thus two immediately obvious and workable, if relatively costly, solutions to the problem of weightlessness. The provision of a near 1 g field during prolonged space flights, and/or the development of rapid transit spacecraft capable of significant acceleration and short flight times. Although these developments could remove or greatly ameliorate the effects of weightlessness during long-distance space flights there remains a problem relating to the long term colonization of the surfaces of Mars, the Moon, and other small solar system bodies. It is not yet known whether or not there is a critical threshold value of 'g' below which viable human physiological function cannot be sustained. If such a threshold exists permanent colonization may only be possible if the threshold value of 'g' is less than that at the surface of the planet on which we wish to settle.     

Mental representation of spatial cues in microgravity: Writing and drawing tests

Humans have mental representation of their environment based on sensory information and experience. A series of experiments has been designed to allow the identification of disturbances in the mental representation of three-dimensional space during space flight as a consequence of the absence of the gravitational frame of reference. This NASA/ESA-funded research effort includes motor tests complemented by psychophysics measurements, designed to distinguish the effects of cognitive versus perceptual-motor changes due to microgravity exposure. Preliminary results have been obtained during the microgravity phase of parabolic flight. These results indicate that the vertical height of handwritten characters and drawn objects is reduced in microgravity compared to normal gravity, suggesting that the mental representation of the height of objects and the environment change during short-term microgravity. Identifying lasting abnormalities in the mental representation of spatial cues will establish the scientific and technical foundation for development of preflight and in-flight training and rehabilitative schemes, enhancing astronaut performance of perceptual-motor tasks, for example, interaction with robotic systems during exploration-class missions.