Location selection and layout for LB10, a lunar base at the Lunar North Pole with a liquid mirror observatory

We present the site selection process and urban planning of a Lunar Base for a crew of 10 (LB10), with an infrared astronomical telescope, based on the concept of the Lunar LIquid Mirror Telescope. LB10 is a base designated for permanent human presence on the Moon. The base architecture is based on utilization of inflatable, rigid and regolith structures for different purposes. The location for the settlement is identified through a detailed analysis of surface conditions and terrain parameters around the Lunar North and South Poles. A number of selection criteria were defined regarding construction, astronomical observations, landing and illumination conditions. The location suggested for the settlement is in the vicinity of the North Pole, utilizing the geographical morphology of the area. The base habitat is on a highly illuminated and relatively flat plateau. The observatory in the vicinity of the base, approximately 3.5 kilometers from the Lunar North Pole, inside a crater to shield it from Sunlight. An illustration of the final form of the habitat is also depicted, inspired by the baroque architectural form.     

Experiment LEND of the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter for high-resolution mapping of neutron emission of the Moon

The scientific objectives of neutron mapping of the Moon are presented as 3 investigation tasks of NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission. Two tasks focus on mapping hydrogen content over the entire Moon and on testing the presence of water-ice deposits at the bottom of permanently shadowed craters at the lunar poles. The third task corresponds to the determination of neutron contribution to the total radiation dose at an altitude of 50 km above the Moon. We show that the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) will be capable of carrying out all 3 investigations. The design concept of LEND is presented together with results of numerical simulations of the instrument's sensitivity for hydrogen detection. The sensitivity of LEND is shown to be characterized by a hydrogen detection limit of about 100 ppm for a polar reference area with a radius of 5 km. If the presence of ice deposits in polar "cold traps" is confirmed, a unique record of many millions of years of lunar history would be obtained, by which the history of lunar impacts could be discerned from the layers of water ice and dust. Future applications of a LEND-type instrument for Mars orbital observations are also discussed.     

月亮女神探月计划及对我国月球与深空探测的思考

日本月亮女神月球探测器在顺利完成各项探测任务后,于北京时间2009年6月11日受控落月.该探月计划在一箭三星组网探测月球背面重力场、有效载荷创新设计、科研活动组织、成果产出、公众参与和科普宣传等方面有许多亮点,对我国探月工程有重要参考价值.文章综合回顾、分析和评述了月亮女神探月计划的任务、探测器、轨道与飞控、重要事件等...     

Recent advances in lunar base simulation

This article reports about the results of the latest computer runs of a lunar base simulation model. The lunar base consists of 20 facilities for lunar mining, processing and fabrication. The infrastructure includes solar and nuclear power plants, a central workshop, habitat and farm. Lunar products can be used for construction of solar power systems (SPS) or other spacecraft at several space locations. The simulation model evaluates the mass, energy and manpower flows between the elements of the system as well as system cost and cost of products on an annual basis for a given operational period. The 1983 standard model run over a fifty-years life cycle (beginning about the year 2000) was accomplished for a mean annual production volume of 78 180 Mg of hardware products for export resulting in average specific manufacturing cost of 8.4 $/kg and total annual cost of 1.25 billion dollars during the life cycle. The reference space transportation system uses LOX/LH₂ propulsion for which at the average 210 500 Mg LOX per year is produced on the moon. The sensitivity analysis indicates the importance of bootstrapping as well as the influence of market size, space transportation cost and specific resources demand on the mean lunar manufacturing cost. The option using lunar resources turns out to be quite attractive from the economical viewpoint. Systems analysis by this lunar base model and further trade-offs will be a useful tool to confirm this.     

Lunar base development missions

On 20 July 1969, humankind first set foot on our Moon. Since then we have developed the Space Shuttle, explored most of the planets, cooperated in the development of the International Space Station, and expanded our knowledge of the universe through use of systems such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the Mars Pathfinder. After just five human follow-on missions to our Moon, we have returned robotically only twice to orbit, to map the surface and explore for resources.

The indication of the presence of hydrogen concentration at the poles of our Moon found by Lunar Prospector has added a new perspective for groups studying and implementing future lunar missions. Plans for nearterm missions such as the European Space Agency (ESA) “Euromoon 2000”, the Japanese Lunar A and Selene, and the Mitsubishi ”Earthrise 2001” Project, along with follow-on phases to the Lunar Prospector, are the beginning of humankind's return to the Moon. Organizations such as the International Academy of Astronautics have long championed the “Case for an International Lunar Base,” and a vision of a commercially-based lunar program has been outlined by several groups. A Lunar Economic Development Authority (LEDA) promoted by the United Society in Space was promulgated by the filing of articles of incorporation in the state of Colorado on 4 August 1997. This non-profit corporation has as its goal the orderly development of the Moon, through issuance of bonds to international private citizens and business entities who care to invest in its long-term development.

This paper draws from the works of the aforementioned, and specifically from the International Academy of Astronautics Lunar Base Committee, to structure a series of architectures leading toward eventual international commercial colonization of the lunar surface. While the prospect of fully reusable transportation systems utilizing fully developed lunar resources to perpetuate the permanent lunar infrastructure is enticing, this is a goal. We must utilize our current and near-term capabilities to re-initiate human lunar presence, and then build on emerging technologies to strengthen our capabilities. Humankind's return to the Moon is a part of our destiny. We can return in the near future, and then proceed to a commercial, permanent settlement in the 21st century.     

月球表面水冰探测进展

月球水冰探测对未来载人月球探测以及构建月球基地意义重大。在继＂克莱门汀＂（Clementine）、＂月球勘探者＂（Lunar Prospector）和＂智能一号＂（SMART-1）等月球探测器的探测后,美国的＂月球勘测轨道器＂（LRO）和＂月球环形山观测与遥感卫星＂（LCROSS）实施了月球极区永久阴影区撞击和观测,初步验证了水冰资源的存在。文章通过系统分析月球水冰的重要性、可能来源、探测历程和探测手段,初步提出我国开展月球水冰探测的载荷初步配置。     

月面设施原位建造技术的研究进展

月面设施原位制造技术是未来航天科技发展的热点技术之一。以美、欧为代表的航天强国及组织均开展了月球原位制造技术的研究,研制了原位制造设备,并开展了相应的地面工艺验证工作,积累了有价值的试验数据和技术参数。在充分调研及跟踪国内外月面设施原位建造最新成果的基础上,系统分析国内外月面设施原位建造技术的发展思路,为我国月球基地的建造提供参考,对我国的载人登月、月球基地等月球探测任务的实施具有重要意义。     

Recent progress on the lunar farside crater Saha proposal

The aim of this review, whose title might as well be “Toward a dedicated lunar farside radio observatory”, is to provide information for potential interested workers whom we invite to contribute to this multidisciplinary effort.First point: in view of the dramatic increase of radio interference due to the development of satellite-based human telecommunications, it will soon become impossible to conduct valuable high-sensitivity SETI observations from the terrestrial ground. It is why a few years ago I started an interdisciplinary and international endeavor to protect for the next 20/30 years a well specified lunar farside crater (Saha) which no Earth- or geostationary orbit-based radio emission could reach.After raising technical, programmatic, legal, astronautical, industrial, political, ethical issues at a number of conferences of international learned institutions, this enterprise is now of interest for the wider field of next generation high-sensitivity radioastronomy at large, from decametric to sub-millimetric waves.This last year, positive results were the creation of an IAA Sub-committee for “A Lunar SETI Study”, the presentation of a Resolution to the IAU for the protection of a potential lunar radio observatory site, discussions at the IAA/IISL Scientific-Legal Roundtable on SETI & Society at IAF Congress in Torino, the organization of a half-day Scientific Event at next COSPAR Assembly in Nagoya and the initiation of an IAA Cosmic Study on the subject.We shall conclude by outlining the next efforts to be initiated up to a real Moon radio observatory.     

月球返回再入着陆场位置选择限定因素分析

月球返回再入着陆场不仅影响月-地返回转移和返回再入飞行,同时也影响整个月球飞行任务的规划和设计.文章首先分析了航天器与地-月间的相对位置关系;结合月-地返回转移及返回再入轨道特性,理清了月球、地球着陆场和航天器三者在惯性空间内相对位置的内在约束关系;最后分析并通过仿真研究,明确了制约航天器返回再入着陆场位置选择的限定因...     

Does the lunar surface still offer value as a site for astronomical observatories?

Current thinking about the Moon as a destination has revitalized interest in lunar astronomical observatories. Once seen by a large scientific community as a highly enabling site, the dramatic improvement in capabilities for free-space observatories prompts reevaluation of this interest. Whereas the lunar surface offers huge performance advantages for astronomy over terrestrial sites, free-space locales such as Earth orbit or Lagrange points offer performance that is superior to what could be achieved on the Moon. While astronomy from the Moon may be cost-effective once infrastructure is there, it is in many respects no longer clearly enabling compared with free space.     

Assessment of the radiation environment on the Moon

In connection with projects on a manned base on the Moon, the assessment of radiation risk to staff of the base owing to galactic (GCR) and solar (SEP) cosmic radiation becomes very relevant. The paper describes the methodology for assessing the radiation environment on the lunar surface and in the depths of lunar soil taking into account the primary and secondary radiation caused by protons and nuclei of GCR and SEP. Calculated fluencies of particles are used to estimate the average annual absorbed and equivalent local doses in tissue. Contribution to the dose of secondary neutrons at depths of lunar soil exceeds the contribution of protons. Contribution to the dose of secondary particles generated by GCR nuclei should be taken into account.     

Meditations on the new space vision: the Moon as a stepping stone to Mars

The Vision for Space Exploration invokes activities on the Moon in preparation for exploration of Mars and also directs International Space Station (ISS) research toward the same goal. Lunar missions will emphasize development of capability and concomitant reduction of risk for future exploration of Mars. Earlier papers identified three critical issues related to the so-called NASA Mars Design Reference Mission (MDRM) to be addressed in the lunar context: (a) safety, health, and performance of the human crew; (b) various modalities of mission operations ranging surface activities to logistics, planning, and navigation; and (c) reliability and maintainability of systems in the planetary environment. In simple terms, lunar expeditions build a résumé that demonstrates the ability to design, construct, and operate an enterprise such as the MDRM with an expectation of mission success. We can evolve from Apollo-like missions to ones that resemble the complexity and duration of the MDRM. Investment in lunar resource utilization technologies falls naturally into the Vision. NASA must construct an exit strategy from the Moon in the third decade. With a mandate for continuing exploration, it cannot assume responsibility for long-term operation of lunar assets. Therefore, NASA must enter into a partnership with some other entity--governmental, international, or commercial--that can responsibly carry on lunar development past the exploration phase.     

Towards a lunar base programme

When the requisite technology exists, the US political process will inevitably include lunar surface activities as a major space objective. This article examines a manned lunar base in terms of three distinct functions: the scientific investigation of the Moon and its environment; development of the capability to use lunar resources for beneficial purposes throughout the Earth-Moon systems; and conduct of R&D leading to a self-sufficient and self-supporting manned lunar base. Three scenarios are outlined with respect to each possible function.     

月球地质形貌及其环境概述

文章重点介绍了月球的地质形貌和月球环境.针对在月球上建立生产基地和居住基地,提出了需要重点开展的一些研究工作.     

The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon

It is over 30 years since the last human being stood on the lunar surface and this long hiatus in human exploration has been to the detriment of lunar and planetary science. The primary scientific importance of the Moon lies in the record it preserves of the early evolution of a terrestrial planet, and of the near-Earth cosmic environment in the first billion years or so of Solar System history. This record may not be preserved anywhere else; gaining proper access to it will require a human presence. Moreover, while this will primarily be a task for the geosciences, the astronomical and biological sciences would also benefit from a renewed human presence on the Moon, and especially from the establishment of a permanently occupied scientific outpost.     

A new rationale for returning to the Moon? Protecting civilization with a sanctuary

A process is well underway in which the scientific, technical and cultural information vital to our society is stored in digital form within a limited number of computer facilities. This practice is vulnerable to a variety of catastrophes which would destroy our knowledge base in addition to the losses they caused to population and structures. The Alliance to Rescue Civilization (ARC) proposes that a staffed data backup facility be constructed in a secure location, with the Moon as the site of choice. If Earth's population were destroyed entirely, the lunar sanctuary could serve to repopulate the planet.     

Analytical definition and proposed concept for the manned infrastructure of a lunar outpost

A recent study made by ESA has reviewed the scientific investigations to be only, or best, performed on the Moon (Return to the Moon, ESA SP-1150, June 1992), and has identified the need for a manned lunar outpost to provide support to field geologists in sampling and in-situ observations of the lunar surface, and to allow the refurbishments of surface stations and rovers. Planning and development for a manned outpost on the Moon requires an in-depth understanding and analysis of the functions this outpost is expected to perform. We therefore analyzed the impact of the proposed scientific investigations on the design of a manned lunar outpost. The specific questions raised in our study were: What are the medical, physiological and psychological risks for a crew to stay and to work on the Moon? What transit and lunar surface infrastructures (habitats and vehicles) are needed to minimize those risks?     

驻波电帘除尘效率的实验研究

月尘将对在月球表面进行巡视探测的设备产生严重不利影响。文章分析了利用驻波电帘对探测器的太阳电池板进行尘埃清除和防护,给出了电帘表面的电场分布,颗粒在电帘表面的受力状态和起跳、跃移过程,通过实验测量给出了电帘结构各参数对除尘效率的影响,制备了自清洁演示系统,对电帘的能耗进行了测定;表明驻波电帘是月表探测任务中尘埃防护的有效方法。     

嫦娥一号卫星的初步科学成果与嫦娥二号卫星的使命

嫦娥一号卫星于2007年10月24日在西昌卫星发射中心成功发射,2009年3月1日受控落月,在轨运行495d,一共取得了1.37Tbyte的原始科学探测数据,在此基础上生产出4Tbyte科学应用数据产品。通过对这些科学探测数据的初步分析和应用研究,已经获得了包括＂我国首次月球探测工程全月球影像图＂等在内的一系列科学成果,圆满实现了预期的各项科学目标,为推动我国月球与行星科学的研究和后续月球探测工程的开展奠定了重要基础。嫦娥二号卫星在嫦娥一号卫星取得圆满成功之后,进行了一系列技术改进,作为探月二期工程的先导星,将于今年年底前发射升空。嫦娥二号卫星从发射到第一次近月制动所经历的时间由13d缩短为5d,环月轨道高度由200km降低为100km,CCD相机的像元分辨率由120m提高到10m,激光高度计测量月面高程由1次/s提高到5次/s。嫦娥二号卫星将重点开展对月面着陆区地形地貌的精细探测,试验验证相关关键技术,为探月二期月面软着陆奠定科学和技术基础。     

月球表面热环境测量方案的研究

月面热环境探测是我国探月工程中的一项必要工作,具有重要的工程意义和科学意义。文章主要探讨月球表面热环境的测量技术方案,为研制一种技术性能先进并可在我国探月工程中搭载的月面热环境测量仪器作好必要的技术准备。这是一种兼顾工程需要与科学性的用于热测量的有效载荷,可实地获取月表热环境特性参数,既可为后续的月面活动提供可靠的热控设计依据,又可为月球的相关科学研究提供必要的基础数据。