Planetary Magnetic Fields and Solar Forcing: Implications for Atmospheric Evolution

The solar wind and the solar XUV/EUV radiation constitute a permanent forcing of the upper atmosphere of the planets in our solar system, thereby affecting the habitability and chances for life to emerge on a planet. The forcing is essentially inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the Sun and, therefore, is most important for the innermost planets in our solar system—the Earth-like planets. The effect of these two forcing terms is to ionize, heat, chemically modify, and slowly erode the upper atmosphere throughout the lifetime of a planet. The closer to the Sun, the more efficient are these process. Atmospheric erosion is due to thermal and non-thermal escape. Gravity constitutes the major protection mechanism for thermal escape, while the non-thermal escape caused by the ionizing X-rays and EUV radiation and the solar wind require other means of protection. Ionospheric plasma energization and ion pickup represent two categories of non-thermal escape processes that may bring matter up to high velocities, well beyond escape velocity. These energization processes have now been studied by a number of plasma instruments orbiting Earth, Mars, and Venus for decades. Plasma measurement results therefore constitute the most useful empirical data basis for the subject under discussion. This does not imply that ionospheric plasma energization and ion pickup are the main processes for the atmospheric escape, but they remain processes that can be most easily tested against empirical data. Shielding the upper atmosphere of a planet against solar XUV, EUV, and solar wind forcing requires strong gravity and a strong intrinsic dipole magnetic field. For instance, the strong dipole magnetic field of the Earth provides a “magnetic umbrella”, fending of the solar wind at a distance of 10 Earth radii. Conversely, the lack of a strong intrinsic magnetic field at Mars and Venus means that the solar wind has more direct access to their topside atmosphere, the reason that Mars and Venus, planets lacking strong intrinsic magnetic fields, have so much less water than the Earth? Climatologic and atmospheric loss process over evolutionary timescales of planetary atmospheres can only be understood if one considers the fact that the radiation and plasma environment of the Sun has changed substantially with time. Standard stellar evolutionary models indicate that the Sun after its arrival at the Zero-Age Main Sequence (ZAMS) 4.5 Gyr ago had a total luminosity of ≈70% of the present Sun. This should have led to a much cooler Earth in the past, while geological and fossil evidence indicate otherwise. In addition, observations by various satellites and studies of solar proxies (Sun-like stars with different age) indicate that the young Sun was rotating more than 10 times its present rate and had correspondingly strong dynamo-driven high-energy emissions which resulted in strong X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) emissions, up to several 100 times stronger than the present Sun. Further, evidence of a much denser early solar wind and the mass loss rate of the young Sun can be determined from collision of ionized stellar winds of the solar proxies, with the partially ionized gas in the interstellar medium. Empirical correlations of stellar mass loss rates with X-ray surface flux values allows one to estimate the solar wind mass flux at earlier times, when the solar wind may have been more than 1000 times more massive. The main conclusions drawn on basis of the Sun-in-time-, and a time-dependent model of plasma energization/escape is that:

1. Solar forcing is effective in removing volatiles, primarily water, from planets,
2. planets orbiting close to the early Sun were subject to a heavy loss of water, the effect being most profound for Venus and Mars, and
3. a persistent planetary magnetic field, like the Earth’s dipole field, provides a shield against solar wind scavenging.

     

Why space physics needs to go beyond the MHD box

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) theory has been used in space physics for more than forty years, yet many important questions about space plasmas remain unanswered. We still do not understand how the solar wind is accelerated, how mass, momentum and energy are transported into the magnetosphere and what mechanisms initiate substorms. Questions have been raised from the beginning of the space era whether MHD theory can describe correctly space plasmas that are collisionless and rarely in thermal equilibrium. Ideal MHD fluids do not induce electromotive force, hence they lose the capability to interact electromagnetically. No currents and magnetic fields are generated, rendering ideal MHD theory not very useful for space plasmas. Observations from the plasma sheet are used as examples to show how collisionless plasmas behave. Interpreting these observations using MHD and ideal MHD concepts can lead to misleading conclusions. Notably, the bursty bulk flows (BBF) with large mean velocities left(〈 v 〉≥400 km s right) that have been interpreted previously as E×B flows are shown to involve much more complicated physics. The sources of these nonvanishing 〈 v 〉 events, while still not known, are intimately related to mechanisms that create large phase space gradients that include beams and acceleration of ions to MeV energies. The distributions of these nonvanishing 〈 v 〉 events are associated with large amplitude variations of the magnetic field at frequencies up to and exceeding the local Larmor frequency where MHD theory is not valid. Understanding collisionless plasma dynamics such as substorms in the plasma sheet requires the self-consistency that only kinetic theory can provide. Kinetic modeling is still undergoing continual development with many studies limited to one and two dimensions, but there is urgent need to improve these models as more and more data show kinetic physics is fundamentally important. Only then will we be able to make progress and obtain a correct picture of how collisionless plasmas work in space.     

Chaos theory and radio emission

The application of chaos theory has become popular to understand the nature of various features of solar activity because most of them are far from regular. The usual approach, however, that is based on finding low-dimensional structures of the underlying processes seems to be successful only in a few exceptional cases, such as in rather coherent phenomena as coronal pulsations. It is important to note that most phenomena in solar radio emission are more complex. We present two kinds of techniques from nonlinear dynamics which can be useful to analyse such phenomena:

1. Fragmentation processes observed in solar spike events are studied by means of symbolic dynamics methods. Different measures of complexity calculated from such observations reveal that there is some order in this fragmentation.
2. Bursts are a typical transient phenomenon. To study energization processes causing impulsive microwave bursts, the wavelet analysis is applied. It exhibits structural differences of the pre- and post-impulsive phase in cases where the power spectra of both are not distinct.

     

Ion Acceleration and Outflow from Mars and Venus: An Overview

Solar wind forcing of Mars and Venus results in outflow and escape of ionospheric ions. Observations show that the replenishment of ionospheric ions starts in the dayside at low altitudes (??300?C800 km), ions moving at a low velocity (5?C10 km/s) in the direction of the external/ magnetosheath flow. At high altitudes, in the inner magnetosheath and in the central tail, ions may be accelerated up to keV energies. However, the dominating energization and outflow process, applicable for the inner magnetosphere of Mars and Venus, leads to outflow at energies ??5?C20 eV. The aim of this overview is to analyze ion acceleration processes associated with the outflow and escape of ionospheric ions from Mars and Venus. Qualitatively, ion acceleration may be divided in two categories:

1. Modest ion acceleration, leading to bulk outflow and/or return flow (circulation).
2. Acceleration to well over escape velocity, up into the keV range.

In the first category we find a processes denoted ??planetary wind??, the result of e.g. ambipolar diffusion, wave enhanced planetary wind, and mass-loaded ion pickup. In the second category we find ion pickup, current sheet acceleration, wave acceleration, and parallel electric fields, the latter above Martian crustal magnetic field regions. Both categories involve mass loading. Highly mass-loaded ion energization may lead to a low-velocity bulk flow??A consequence of energy and momentum conservation. It is therefore not self-evident what group, or what processes are connected with the low-energy outflow of ionospheric ions from Mars. Experimental and theoretical findings on ionospheric ion acceleration and outflow from Mars and Venus are discussed in this report.     

Identifications of some highly-ionized iron and nickel lines in the 200–400 Å region of the solar spectrum

A number of previously unclassified multiplets of Fexiv, xiii, xii, and xi produced by transitions of the type 3s ²3p ⁿ -3s3p ⁿ⁺¹ are identified in the XUV spectrum of the Sun. The iron lines account for most of the previously unidentified strong lines between 330 and 370 Å. Solar observations of especial value for the investigation of the 300–400 Å region were the slitless spectroheliograms of September 22, 1968 (Purcell and Tousey, 1969) and November 4, 1969 (Tousey, 1971) — on which the image of a flare was recorded. Other solar identifications in the same spectral region include the resonance lines of Nixvii and Nixviii, and one 3p-3d multiplet of Fexiii. The solar blend at 417 Å involving the Fexv inter-combination line and Sxiv is resolved.     

Conjugate features of magnetospheric electron dynamics observed at balloon altitudes

Analysis of recent observations (from balloons, spacecraft, and surface observatories) demonstrate regional, shell, and nearpoint conjugacy at L ～ 7 during precipitative events which were characterized by local acceleration as well as release of gradient-drifted electrons injected during substorms. A number of new features of magnetospheric dynamics relating to substorm development and sudden-commencement effects, have been brought to light which, though poorly understood at present, may prove of considerable importance and are worthy of further investigation.

1. During the initial period of instability in substorm evolution, preceding the slower magnetotail convective injection, precipitation of waves of electrons in rapid polewards motion exhibit L-shell conjugacy near midnight.
2. Transient, large scale expansions of the magnetospheric electron population accompanied by temporally imbedded substorms display large scale regional conjugacy and are simultaneously observed as similarly transient intensity dropouts at balloon altitudes.
3. Precipitation from gradient-drifting electrons in the dayside magnetosphere exhibits near point-conjugacy, at least down to the order of 50 km and quite probably less.

Similarly tight conjugacy applies to the release of electrons showing a specific local response to sudden commencements.

1. Analysis of the approach to and attainment of spectral equilibrium in the precipitation observed from drifting electrons may provide information about either, or both, the source spectrum at injection and the process of local release.
2. The specific precipitation effect sometimes observed at the time of an SC remains a rather puzzling feature, although it seems clear now that the acceleration and/or release process responsible is of a highly local nature and works selectively at small pitch angles well within the magnetospheric boundary. Coupling of the interplanetary shock with the magnetosphere must be an important aspect, but the details are not clear as yet.
3. On at least one occasion, a large part (perhaps all) of the magnetospheric electron population varied in a nearly synchronous manner in response to solar wind induced distortions during the variable compressive phase of a sudden commencement geomagnetic storm.

In the ongoing effort to identify and understand acceleration and release mechanisms involved in magnetospheric dynamics, balloon-borne experiments will continue to be useful, providing essential information presently unattainable by other means.     

The Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers (TWINS) NASA Mission-of-Opportunity

Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers (TWINS) is a NASA Explorer Mission-of-Opportunity to stereoscopically image the Earth’s magnetosphere for the first time. TWINS extends our understanding of magnetospheric structure and processes by providing simultaneous Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) imaging from two widely separated locations. TWINS observes ENAs from 1–100 keV with high angular (～4°×4°) and time (～1-minute) resolution. The TWINS Ly-α monitor measures the geocoronal hydrogen density to aid in ENA analysis while environmental sensors provide contemporaneous measurements of the local charged particle environments. By imaging ENAs with identical instruments from two widely spaced, high-altitude, high-inclination spacecraft, TWINS enables three-dimensional visualization of the large-scale structures and dynamics within the magnetosphere for the first time. This “instrument paper” documents the TWINS design, construction, calibration, and initial results. Finally, the appendix of this paper describes and documents the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) instrument calibration facility; this facility was used for all TWINS instrument-level calibrations.     

Solar Fine-Scale Structures. I. Spicules and Other Small-Scale, Jet-Like Events at the Chromospheric Level: Observations and Physical Parameters

Over the last two decades the uninterrupted, high resolution observations of the Sun, from the excellent range of telescopes aboard many spacecraft complemented with observations from sophisticated ground-based telescopes have opened up a new world producing significantly more complete information on the physical conditions of the solar atmosphere than before. The interface between the lower solar atmosphere where energy is generated by subsurface convection and the corona comprises the chromosphere, which is dominated by jet-like, dynamic structures, called mottles when found in quiet regions, fibrils when found in active regions and spicules when observed at the solar limb. Recently, space observations with Hinode have led to the suggestion that there should exist two different types of spicules called Type?I and Type?II which have different properties. Ground-based observations in the Ca?ii H and K filtergrams reveal the existence of long, thin emission features called straws in observations close to the limb, and a class of short-lived events called rapid blue-shifted excursions characterized by large Doppler shifts that appear only in the blue wing of the Ca?ii infrared line. It has been suggested that the key to understanding how the solar plasma is accelerated and heated may well be found in the studies of these jet-like, dynamic events. However, while these structures are observed and studied for more than 130 years in the visible, but also in the UV and EUV emission lines and continua, there are still many questions to be answered. Thus, despite their importance and a multitude of observations performed and theoretical models proposed, questions regarding their origin, how they are formed, their physical parameters, their association with the underlying photospheric magnetic field, how they appear in the different spectral lines, and the interrelationship between structures observed in quiet and active regions on the disk and at the limb, as well as their role in global processes has not yet received definitive answers. In addition, how they affect the coronal heating and solar wind need to be further explored. In this review we present observations and physical properties of small-scale jet-like chromospheric events observed in active and quiet regions, on the disk and at the limb and discuss their interrelationship.     

Interplanetary scintillation

The use of interplanetary scintillations for probing otherwise inaccessible regions of the solar wind is reviewed. A comparison with space-craft observations in the ecliptic is used as a calibration for the scintillation observations. Recent observations at high latitudes and near the Sun are discussed from this viewpoint. A new analysis which uses both scintillation and angular scattering observations to estimate the electron density spectrum is introduced. The spectrum appears to have a high frequency cutoff which varies slowly with solar distances and may also have a relatively flat region just below the cutoff frequency.     

Cosmic ray modulation in the 3-D heliosphere

The basic physical processes that lead to the long-term modulation of cosmic rays by the solar wind have been known for many years. However our knowledge of the structure of the heliosphere, which determines which processes are most important for the modulation, and of the variation of this structure with time and solar activity level is still incomplete. Study of the modulation provides a tool for probing the scale and structure of the heliosphere. While the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft are surveying the radial structure and extent of the heliosphere at modest heliographic latitudes, theUlysses mission is the first to undertake a nearly complete scan of the latitudinal structure of the modulated cosmic ray intensity in the inner heliosphere (R<5.4 AU).Ulysses will reach latitudes of 80°S in September 1994 and 80°N in July 1995 during the approach to minimum activity in the 11 year solar cycle. We present a first report of measurements extending to latitudes of 52°S, which show surprisingly little latitudinal effect in the modulated intensities and suggest that at this time modulation in the inner heliosphere may be much more spherically symmetric than had generally been believed based upon models and previous observations.     

The atmosphere of Venus

The investigations of Venus take a special position in planetary researches. It was just the atmosphere of Venus where first measurements in situ were carried out by means of the equipment delivered by a space probe (Venera 4, 1967). Venus appeared to be the first neighbor planet whose surface had been seen by us in the direct nearness made possible by means of the phototelevision device (Venera 9 and Venera 10, 1975). The reasons for the high interest in this planet are very simple. This planet is like the Earth by its mass, size and amount of energy obtained from the Sun and at the same time it differs sharply by the character of its atmosphere and climate. We hope that the investigations of Venus will lead us to define more precisely the idea of complex physical and physical-chemical processes which rule the evolution of planetary atmospheres. We hope to learn to forecast this evolution and maybe, in the far future, to control it. The last expeditions to Venus carried out in 1978 — American (Pioneer-Venus) and Soviet (Venera 11 and 12) — brought much news and it is interesting to sum up the results just now. The contents of this review are:

1. The planet Venus — basic astronomical data.
2. Chemical composition.
3. Temperature, pressure, density (from 0 to 100 km).
4. Clouds.
5. Thermal regime and greenhouse effect.
6. Dynamics.
7. Chemical processes.
8. Upper atmosphere.
9. Origin and evolution.
10. Problems for future studies

Here we have attempted to review the data published up to 1979 and partly in 1980. The list of references is not exhaustive. Publications of special issues of magazines and collected articles concerning separate space expeditions became traditional last time. The results obtained on the Soviet space probes Venera 9, 10 (the first publications) are collected in the special issues of Kosmicheskie issledovanija (14, Nos. 5, 6, 1975), analogous material about Venera 11, 12 is given at Pis'ma Astron. Zh. (5, Nos. 1 and 5, 1978), and in Kosmicheskie issledovanija (16, No. 5, 1979). The results of Pioneer-Venus mission are represented in two Science issues (203, No. 4382; 205, No. 4401) and special issue of J. Geophys. Res. (1980). We shall mention some articles to the same topic among previous surveys: (Moroz, 1971; Sagan, 1971; Marov, 1972; Hunten et al., 1977; Hoffman et al., 1977) and also the books by Kuzmin and Marov (1974) and Kondrat'ev (1977). Some useful information in the part of ground-based observations may be found in the older sources (for example, Sharonov, 1965; Moroz, 1967). For briefness we shall use as a rule the abbreviations of space missions names: V4 instead of Venera 4, M10 instead of Mariner 10 and so on. The first artificial satellites of Venus in the world (orbiters Venera 9 and 10) we shall mark as V9-O, V10-O unlike the descent probes V9, V10. Fly-by modules of Venera 11 and Venera 12 we shall mark as V11-F and V12-F. Pioneers descent probes — Large (Sounder), Day, Night and North — will be marked as P-L, P-D, P-Ni, P-No, orbiter as P-O, and bus as P-B.     

A strategy for investigation of the outer solar system

The requirements of systematic exploration of the outer solar system have been intensively studied by a Science Advisory Group (SAG) of consulting scientists for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Comets and Asteroids were excluded from this study, as a separate group is planning missions to these bodies. This paper and accompanying articles on specific related scientific subjects written by members of the SAG, summarize the findings and recommendations of this group. These recommendations should not be interpreted as official NASA policy. Following some general introductory remarks, a brief sketch is given of the development and current status of scientific missions to the inner planets by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. With this perspective, the development of the U.S. program for investigation of the outer solar system is described. The scientific focus of outer solar system exploration has been studied in detail. The relationship of the outer planetary bodies to one another and to the inner planets, as parts in a unified solar system evolved from a primitive solar nebula, is emphasized. Deductions from outer solar system investigations regarding the conditions of the solar nebula at the time of planetary formation have been considered. Investigations have been proposed that are relevant to studies of the atmospheric structure and dynamics, internal structure of the planets, satellite composition and morphology, and planetary and interplanetary fields and energetic particles. The mission type and sequence required to conduct a systematic exploration of the outer solar system has been developed. Technological rationales for the suggested missions are discussed in general terms. The existing NASA program for outer solar system exploration is comprised of four missions:

1. Pioneer 10 fly-by mission to Jupiter and beyond, currently underway, with launch on 3 March 1972;
2. Pioneer G, intended for a similar mission with planned launch 2–22 April 1973; and
3. Two Mariner Jupiter/Saturn fly-bys in 1977, with experiment selection scheduled for late 1972 and detailed engineering design during 1972–74.

The Science Advisory Group advocates that detailed mission planning be undertaken on the following additional missions for launches during the late 1970's and early 1980's. Together with existing plans, these would provide a balanced, effective exploration program.

1. 1976 Pioneer Jupiter/Out-of-Ecliptic (One Mission)
2. 1979 Mariner Jupiter/Uranus Fly-bys (Two Missions)
3. 1979 Pioneer Entry Probe to Saturn 1980 Pioneer Entry Probe to Uranus via Saturn Fly-by (Three Missions)
4. 1981/1982 Mariner Jupiter Orbiter (Two Missions).

     

Abundances,Ionization States,Temperatures, and FIP in Solar Energetic Particles

The relative abundances of chemical elements and isotopes have been our most effective tool in identifying and understanding the physical processes that control populations of energetic particles. The early surprise in solar energetic particles (SEPs) was 1000-fold enhancements in \({}^{3}\mbox{He}/{}^{4}\mbox{He}\) from resonant wave-particle interactions in the small “impulsive” SEP events that emit electron beams that produce type III radio bursts. Further studies found enhancements in Fe/O, then extreme enhancements in element abundances that increase with mass-to-charge ratio \(A/Q\), rising by a factor of 1000 from He to Au or Pb arising in magnetic reconnection regions on open field lines in solar jets. In contrast, in the largest SEP events, the “gradual” events, acceleration occurs at shock waves driven out from the Sun by fast, wide coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Averaging many events provides a measure of solar coronal abundances, but \(A/Q\)-dependent scattering during transport causes variations with time; thus if Fe scatters less than O, Fe/O is enhanced early and depleted later. To complicate matters, shock waves often reaccelerate impulsive suprathermal ions left over or trapped above active regions that have spawned many impulsive events. Direct measurements of ionization states \(Q\) show coronal temperatures of 1–2 MK for most gradual events, but impulsive events often show stripping by matter traversal after acceleration. Direct measurements of \(Q\) are difficult and often unavailable. Since both impulsive and gradual SEP events have abundance enhancements that vary as powers of \(A/Q\), we can use abundances to deduce the probable \(Q\)-values and the source plasma temperatures during acceleration, ≈3 MK for impulsive SEPs. This new technique also allows multiple spacecraft to measure temperature variations across the face of a shock wave, measurements otherwise unavailable and provides a new understanding of abundance variations in the element He. Comparing coronal abundances from SEPs and from the slow solar wind as a function of the first ionization potential (FIP) of the elements, remaining differences are for the elements C, P, and S. The theory of the fractionation of ions by Alfvén waves shows that C, P, and S are suppressed because of wave resonances during chromospheric transport on closed magnetic loops but not on open magnetic fields that supply the solar wind. Shock waves can accelerate ions from closed coronal loops that easily escape as SEPs, while the solar wind must emerge on open fields.     

Imaging Plasma Density Structures in the Soft X-Rays Generated by Solar Wind Charge Exchange with Neutrals

Both heliophysics and planetary physics seek to understand the complex nature of the solar wind’s interaction with solar system obstacles like Earth’s magnetosphere, the ionospheres of Venus and Mars, and comets. Studies with this objective are frequently conducted with the help of single or multipoint in situ electromagnetic field and particle observations, guided by the predictions of both local and global numerical simulations, and placed in context by observations from far and extreme ultraviolet (FUV, EUV), hard X-ray, and energetic neutral atom imagers (ENA). Each proposed interaction mechanism (e.g., steady or transient magnetic reconnection, local or global magnetic reconnection, ion pick-up, or the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability) generates diagnostic plasma density structures. The significance of each mechanism to the overall interaction (as measured in terms of atmospheric/ionospheric loss at comets, Venus, and Mars or global magnetospheric/ionospheric convection at Earth) remains to be determined but can be evaluated on the basis of how often the density signatures that it generates are observed as a function of solar wind conditions. This paper reviews efforts to image the diagnostic plasma density structures in the soft (low energy, 0.1–2.0 keV) X-rays produced when high charge state solar wind ions exchange electrons with the exospheric neutrals surrounding solar system obstacles.The introduction notes that theory, local, and global simulations predict the characteristics of plasma boundaries such the bow shock and magnetopause (including location, density gradient, and motion) and regions such as the magnetosheath (including density and width) as a function of location, solar wind conditions, and the particular mechanism operating. In situ measurements confirm the existence of time- and spatial-dependent plasma density structures like the bow shock, magnetosheath, and magnetopause/ionopause at Venus, Mars, comets, and the Earth. However, in situ measurements rarely suffice to determine the global extent of these density structures or their global variation as a function of solar wind conditions, except in the form of empirical studies based on observations from many different times and solar wind conditions. Remote sensing observations provide global information about auroral ovals (FUV and hard X-ray), the terrestrial plasmasphere (EUV), and the terrestrial ring current (ENA). ENA instruments with low energy thresholds (\(\sim1~\mbox{keV}\)) have recently been used to obtain important information concerning the magnetosheaths of Venus, Mars, and the Earth. Recent technological developments make these magnetosheaths valuable potential targets for high-cadence wide-field-of-view soft X-ray imagers.Section 2 describes proposed dayside interaction mechanisms, including reconnection, the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, and other processes in greater detail with an emphasis on the plasma density structures that they generate. It focuses upon the questions that remain as yet unanswered, such as the significance of each proposed interaction mode, which can be determined from its occurrence pattern as a function of location and solar wind conditions. Section 3 outlines the physics underlying the charge exchange generation of soft X-rays. Section 4 lists the background sources (helium focusing cone, planetary, and cosmic) of soft X-rays from which the charge exchange emissions generated by solar wind exchange must be distinguished. With the help of simulations employing state-of-the-art magnetohydrodynamic models for the solar wind-magnetosphere interaction, models for Earth’s exosphere, and knowledge concerning these background emissions, Sect. 5 demonstrates that boundaries and regions such as the bow shock, magnetosheath, magnetopause, and cusps can readily be identified in images of charge exchange emissions. Section 6 reviews observations by (generally narrow) field of view (FOV) astrophysical telescopes that confirm the presence of these emissions at the intensities predicted by the simulations. Section 7 describes the design of a notional wide FOV “lobster-eye” telescope capable of imaging the global interactions and shows how it might be used to extract information concerning the global interaction of the solar wind with solar system obstacles. The conclusion outlines prospects for missions employing such wide FOV imagers.     

Electric Fields and Magnetic Fields in the Plasmasphere: A Perspective From CLUSTER and IMAGE

The electric field and magnetic field are basic quantities in the plasmasphere measured since the 1960s. In this review, we first recall conventional wisdom and remaining problems from ground-based whistler measurements. Then we show scientific results from Cluster and Image, which are specifically made possible by newly introduced features on these spacecraft, as follows. 1. In situ electric field measurements using artificial electron beams are successfully used to identify electric fields originating from various sources. 2. Global electric fields are derived from sequences of plasmaspheric images, revealing how the inner magnetospheric electric field responds to the southward interplanetary magnetic fields and storms/substorms. 3. Understanding of sub-auroral polarization stream (SAPS) or sub-auroral ion drifts (SAID) are advanced through analysis of a combination of magnetospheric and ionospheric measurements from Cluster, Image, and DMSP. 4. Data from multiple spacecraft have been used to estimate magnetic gradients for the first time.     

Revising the Local Bubble Model due to Solar Wind Charge Exchange X-ray Emission

The hot Local Bubble surrounding the solar neighborhood has been primarily studied through observations of its soft X-ray emission. The measurements were obtained by attributing all of the observed local soft X-rays to the bubble. However, mounting evidence shows that the heliosphere also produces diffuse X-rays. The source is solar wind ions that have received an electron from another atom. The presence of this alternate explanation for locally produced diffuse X-rays calls into question the existence and character of the Local Bubble. This article addresses these questions. It reviews the literature on solar wind charge exchange (SWCX) X-ray production, finding that SWCX accounts for roughly half of the observed local 1/4 keV X-rays found at low latitudes. This article also makes predictions for the heliospheric O VI column density and intensity, finding them to be smaller than the observational error bars. Evidence for the continued belief that the Local Bubble contains hot gas includes the remaining local 1/4 keV intensity, the observed local O VI column density, and the need to fill the local region with some sort of plasma. If the true Local Bubble is half as bright as previously thought, then its electron density and thermal pressure are $1/\sqrt{2}$ as great as previously thought, and its energy requirements and emission measure are 1/2 as great as previously thought. These adjustments can be accommodated easily, and, in fact, bring the Local Bubble’s pressure more in line with that of the adjacent material. Suggestions for future work are made.     

Science Objectives and Rationale for the Radiation Belt Storm Probes Mission

The NASA Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission addresses how populations of high energy charged particles are created, vary, and evolve in space environments, and specifically within Earth’s magnetically trapped radiation belts. RBSP, with a nominal launch date of August 2012, comprises two spacecraft making in situ measurements for at least 2 years in nearly the same highly elliptical, low inclination orbits (1.1×5.8 RE, 10^°). The orbits are slightly different so that 1 spacecraft laps the other spacecraft about every 2.5 months, allowing separation of spatial from temporal effects over spatial scales ranging from ～0.1 to 5 RE. The uniquely comprehensive suite of instruments, identical on the two spacecraft, measures all of the particle (electrons, ions, ion composition), fields (E and B), and wave distributions (d E and d B) that are needed to resolve the most critical science questions. Here we summarize the high level science objectives for the RBSP mission, provide historical background on studies of Earth and planetary radiation belts, present examples of the most compelling scientific mysteries of the radiation belts, present the mission design of the RBSP mission that targets these mysteries and objectives, present the observation and measurement requirements for the mission, and introduce the instrumentation that will deliver these measurements. This paper references and is followed by a number of companion papers that describe the details of the RBSP mission, spacecraft, and instruments.     

Deducing turbulence parameters from transionospheric scintillation measurements

The theoretical framework and experimental methodology used to interpret observations of ionospheric scintillations in terms of geophysical processes are reviewed and recent experimental observations of ionospheric scintillations are discussed in this paper. During the past 15 years significant progress has been made in several areas. In particular, significant advances have been made in theoretical understanding of the strong scintillation regime and the effects of short-term temporal variations of the scintillation producing irregularities on observations made with spaced-receiver geometries in both weak and strong scintillations. This improved understanding of the scintillation process has significantly increased the utility of the technique particularly in the equatorial latitudes where geometrical effects are least important.     

Chemical Composition of Icy Satellite Surfaces

Much of our knowledge of planetary surface composition is derived from remote sensing over the ultraviolet through infrared wavelength ranges. Telescopic observations and, in the past few decades, spacecraft mission observations have led to the discovery of many surface materials, from rock-forming minerals to water ice to exotic volatiles and organic compounds. Identifying surface materials and mapping their distributions allows us to constrain interior processes such as cryovolcanism and aqueous geochemistry. The recent progress in understanding of icy satellite surface composition has been aided by the evolving capabilities of spacecraft missions, advances in detector technology, and laboratory studies of candidate surface compounds. Pioneers 10 and 11, Voyagers I and II, Galileo, Cassini and the New Horizons mission have all made significant contributions. Dalton (Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue) summarizes the major constituents found or inferred to exist on the surfaces of the icy satellites (cf. Table 1 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue), and the spectral coverage and resolution of many of the spacecraft instruments that have revolutionized our understanding (cf. Table 2 from Dalton, Space Sci. Rev., 2010, this issue). While much has been gained from these missions, telescopic observations also continue to provide important constraints on surface compositions, especially for those bodies that have not yet been visited by spacecraft, such as Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs), trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), Centaurs, the classical planet Pluto and its moon, Charon. In this chapter, we will discuss the major satellites of the outer solar system, the materials believed to make up their surfaces, and the history of some of these discoveries. Formation scenarios and subsequent evolution will be described, with particular attention to the processes that drive surface chemistry and exchange with interiors. Major similarities and differences between the satellites are discussed, with an eye toward elucidating processes operating throughout the outer solar system. Finally we discuss the outermost satellites and other bodies, and summarize knowledge of their composition. Much of this review is likely to change in the near future with ongoing and planned outer planet missions, adding to the sense of excitement and discovery associated with our exploration of our planetary neighborhood.     

Modelling Electrostatic Sheath Effects on Swarm Electric Field Instrument Measurements

The Electric Field Instrument (EFI) was designed to measure ionospheric ion flow velocities, temperatures and distribution functions at the ram face of the European Space Agency’s Swarm spacecraft. These flow velocities, combined with the known orbital velocity of the satellite and local magnetic field, will be used to infer local electric fields from the relation E=?v×B. EFI is among a class of many particle sensors and flow meters mounted on satellites to monitor in situ plasma conditions. The interpretation of the measurements made with EFI and similar sensors relies on a spacecraft sheath model. A common approach, valid in the relatively cold and dense ionospheric plasma, is to assume a potential drop in a thin sheath through which particle deflection and energisation can be calculated analytically. In such models, sheath effects only depend on the spacecraft floating potential, and on the angle of incidence of particles with respect to the normal to the surface. Corrections to measurements are therefore local as they do not depend on the geometry of nearby objects. In an actual plasma, satellites are surrounded by electrostatic sheaths with a finite thickness. As a result, local corrections to particle distribution functions can only be seen as an approximation. A correct interpretation of measured particle fluxes or particle distribution functions must, at least in principle, account for the extent and shape of the sheath in the vicinity of the measuring instrument. This in turn requires a careful analysis of the interaction of the satellite with the surrounding plasma, while accounting for detailed aspects of the geometry, as well as for several physical effects. In this paper, the validity of the thin sheath model is tested by comparing its predictions with detailed PIC (Particle In Cell) calculations of satellite-plasma interaction. Deviations attributed to sheath finite thickness effects are calculated for EFI measurements, with representative plasma parameters encountered along the planned Swarm orbit. Finite thickness effects of the plasma sheaths are found to induce EFI velocity measurement errors not exceeding 37 m/s, with larger errors occurring in plasmas that are simultaneously tenuous (10⁹ m^?3 or lower) and warm (0.5 eV or higher).