Observational Tests of the Picture of Disk Accretion

In this chapter, I present a summary of observational tests of the basic picture of disk accretion. An emphasis is placed on tests relevant to black holes, but many of the fundamental results are drawn from studies of other classes of systems. Evidence is discussed for the basic structures of accretion flows. The cases of systems with and without accretion disks are discussed, as is the evidence that disks actually form. Also discussed are the hot spots where accretion streams impact the disks, and the boundary layers in the inner parts of systems where the accretors are not black holes. The nature of slow, large amplitude variability is discussed. It is shown that some of the key predictions of the classical thermal-viscous ionization instability model for producing outbursts are in excellent agreement with observational results. It is also show that there are systems whose outbursts are extremely difficult to explain without invoking variations in the rate of mass transfer from the donor star into the outer accretion disk, or tidally induced variations in the mass transfer rates. Finally, I briefly discuss recent quasar microlensing measurements which give truly independent constraints on the inner accretion geometry around black holes.     

Theories of magnetospheres around accreting compact objects

A wide class of galactic X-ray sources are believed to be binary systems where mass is flowing from a normal star to a companion that is a compact object, such as a neutron star. The strong magnetic fields of the compact object create a magnetosphere around it. We review the theoretical models developed to describe the properties of magnetospheres in such accreting binary systems. The size of the magnetosphere can be estimated from pressure balance arguments and is found to be small compared to the over-all size of the accretion region but large compared to the compact object if the latter is a neutron star. In the early models the magnetosphere was assumed to have open funnels in the polar regions, through which accreting plasma could pour in. Later, magnetically closed models were developed, with plasma entry made possible by instabilities at the magnetosphere boundary. The theory of plasma flow inside the magnetosphere has been formulated in analogy to a stellar wind with reversed flow; a complicating factor is the instability of the Alfvén critical point for inflow. In the case of accretion via a well-defined disk, new problems of magnetospheric structure appear, in particular the question to what extent and by what process the magnetic fields from the compact object can penetrate into the accretion disk. Since the X-ray emission is powered by the gravitational energy released in the accretion process, mass transfer into the magnetosphere is of fundamental importance; the various proposed mechanisms are critically examined.Proceedings of the NASA/JPL Workshop on the Physics of Planetary and Astrophysical Magnetospheres.     

Accretion disks in stellar X-ray sources

This review presents an introduction to the theory of accretion disks. After explaining the importance of accretion disks in stellar X-ray sources, it considers observational and theoretical indications of the formation of accretion disks in close binary systems. The simple Shakura and Sunyaev model and its problems are discussed. A survey of other models that try to improve upon this model is given (in Table III), and critically discussed.     

Time-resolved spectroscopy of accretion disks in Algols

Time-resolved spectroscopy during the eclipse of short-period Algol systems, has shown their accretion disks to be small, turbulent structures with non-Keplerian velocity fields and asymmetries between the leading and trailing sides of the disk. These transient disks are produced by the impact of the gas stream on the mass-gaining star, and occur in systems where the star is just large enough to ensure the stream collision is complete. These emission line disks and the excess continuum emission do not always occur together. The permanent accretion disks in at least a few of the long-period Algol systems have features in common with the transient disks including non-Keplerian velocity fields.     

Time-resolved spectroscopy of accretion disks in Algols

Time-resolved spectroscopy during the eclipse of short-period Algol systems, has shown their accretion disks to be small, turbulent structures with non-Keplerian velocity fields and asymmetries between the leading and trailing sides of the disk. These transient disks are produced by the impact of the gas stream on the mass-gaining star, and occur in systems where the star is just large enough to ensure the stream collision is complete. These emission line disks and the excess continuum emission do not always occur together. The permanent accretion disks in at least a few of the long-period Algol systems have features in common with the transient disks including non-Keplerian velocity fields.     

Intermittent stellar wind accretion in Pop. I binary systems containing an X-ray pulsar

We review the long term variability properties of accretion powered X-ray pulsars in massive Pop. I binary systems and discuss how their characteristics, in particular the large dynamic range in luminosity of the transient pulsars, can be understood in terms of the interaction of the accreting material with the neutron star magnetosphere. We point out that the X-ray pulsar transient activity in general can be due to the transition between direct wind accretion and a regime in which the centrifugal drag exerted by the pulsar magnetosphere inhibits accretion onto the neutron star surface.     

TeV emission from close binaries

It is commonly accepted that candidates for very high energy -ray sources are neutron stars, binary systems, black holes etc. Close binary systems containing a normal hot star and a neutron star (or a black hole) form an important class of very high energy -ray sources. Such systems are variable in any region of the electromagnetic spectrum and they enable us to study various stages of stellar evolution, accretion processes, mechanisms of particle acceleration, etc. Phenomena connected with this class of very high energy -ray sources are discussed. Particular emphasis has been placed on the TeV energy region.     

Formation of the Cores of the Outer Planets

The formation of the giant planets seems to be best explained by accretion of planetesimals to form massive cores, which in the case of Jupiter and Saturn were able to capture nebular gas. However, the timescale for accretion of such cores has been a problem. Accretion in the outer solar system differs qualitatively from planetary growth in the terrestrial region, as the larger embryo masses and lower orbital velocities make bodies more subject to gravitational scattering. The planetesimal swarm in the outer nebula may be seeded by earlier-formed large bodies scattered from the region near the nebular “snow line”. Such a seed body can experience rapid runaway growth undisturbed by competitors; the style of growth is not oligarchy, but monarchy.     

Semidetached systems: Evolutionary viewpoints and observational constraints

The present knowledge on the evolution of semidetached systems is reviewed. Characteristics of observed systems are discussed and general properties tested by the behaviour of theoretical models. New models of mass accreting companion stars are computed. The accretion phase is divided into a fast and slow phase with an accretion rate depending on the initial mass of the mass losing star and on the initial mass ratio, assuming the systems are undergoing a case B of mass transfer. The results are compared with observed systems with masses of the gainers located within the theoretical range. Up to now no computations exist for the evolution of medium mass close binaries including overshooting of the convective core. However some of the influences of extended convective mixing on the interaction of close binaries are investigated. A larger probability for the occurrence of case A of mass exchange and a larger remnant mass at the end of the process are the most important results. Finally the investigation into the origin of individual systems (in mass, mass ratio and period) is discussed, showing that progress both in observations and in theoretical models result in a more detailed and more restricted determination of the initial parameters of the individual systems.Research associate, NFWO, Belgium.     

二维翼型大尺寸过冷水滴撞击特性及冰形分析

基于现有大尺寸过冷水滴(supercooled large droplet, SLD)动力学特性,分析水滴变形对阻力的影响.并根据几种典型的反弹/飞溅模型,分析了SLD的阻力变化、反弹、飞溅等对水滴撞击特性的影响,采用软件FENSAP-ICE的飞溅模型和LEWICE 2.0的反弹模型研究了反弹及飞溅现象对冰形的影响.计算结果显示:水滴撞击前的破碎现象对水滴尺寸分布有较大的影响,进行撞击特性以及冰形计算的时候需进行考虑;SLD破碎、飞溅、反弹降低了局部水收集系数、减小了水滴撞击范围;飞溅现象主要发生在机翼前缘附近区域,反弹主要在撞击边缘区域;水滴直径增加,飞溅现象逐渐减弱,但边缘位置的反弹现象一直很明显.SLD变形带来的阻力影响对冰形及结冰区域影响很小;与未考虑飞溅及反弹现象得到的冰形比较,考虑飞溅及反弹得到冰形前缘区域形状变化不大,但是整体结冰区域减小.      

Tenma observations of bright binary X-ray sources

Spectroscopic study of bright binary X-ray sources, performed with the gas scintillation proportional counters on board Tenma, is reviewed. Properties of an iron emission line from two classes of bright binary X-ray sources: X-ray pulsars and low-mass binary sources, are first presented. It is shown that a most likely candidate for the line emitting region is an Alfven shell in case of X-ray pulsars, whereas that of low mass binary sources is an outer accretion disk. Next, nature of the continuum emission from low-mass binary sources is consistently interpreted by a picture that an optically thick accretion disk extends down to very near the surface of a weakly magnetized neutron star. Origin of ultrasoft spectra of black hole candidate sources is also discussed.     

Multi-Wavelength Variability

Multiwavelength variability data, combined with spectral-timing analysis techniques, provides information about the causal relationship between different physical components in accreting black holes. Using fast-timing data and long-term monitoring, we can probe the behaviour of the same components across the black hole mass scale. In this chapter we review the observational status of multiwavelength variability in accreting black holes, from black hole X-ray binaries to AGN, and consider the implications for models of accretion and ejection, primarily considering the evidence for accretion disc and jet variability in these systems. We end with a consideration of future prospects in this quickly-developing field.     

Photometric effects of accretion disks in long-period eclipsing binaries

Summary A multi-year photometric program on long-period eclipsing binaries has begun to uncover some properties of accretion disks in these systems. Emission and transmission properties can sometimes be found from light curve features produced by partial eclipses of the disk by the cool star, and by partial occultations of the cool star by the disk. These disks do not have the classical alpha structure. They are optically thin normal to the orbital plane, but may be geometrically thicker than purely gravitationally-stratified disks. Disk gas may be contaminated by dust particles acquired from the outer layers of the cool loser. In some systems, high states, produced by elevated mass accretion by the hot star, occur, suggesting that the mass distribution in the disk is clumpy. However mass-transfer rates are found, they lie between 10^-7 and 10^-6 solar masses per year.While this binary sample is small at the moment, some of its properties are shared with other systems. The author has five-color observations of about a dozen additional systems, which may fill out this picture more fully.     

发动机整流支板大尺寸过冷水滴撞击特性

目前航空发动机防冰系统通用设计方案是以过冷小水滴的撞击特性为依据,但最新的研究结果显示大尺寸过冷水滴(SLD)环境下的结冰会对飞行器带来更加恶劣的影响.基于此,对大尺寸过冷水滴环境下发动机进口支板的水滴撞击特性进行了研究.首先对水滴运动控制方程进行了修正,以模拟水滴的变形及破碎的影响;然后对水滴在壁面处飞溅、反弹现象进...     

Circumstellar matter in Algols and Serpentids

A systematic search is reported for phenomena associated with circumstellar matter in interacting binary systems of the Algol and W Serpentis type. Ultraviolet emission lines have been detected by the author in 10 Algols and 6 Serpentids. No conspicuous difference exists between systems with disk accretion and those with direct stream impact. Evidence is indicated that the lines are formed predominantly by scattering in an induced stellar wind. Relative intensity of Fe II and Fe III emissions appears to be correlated with the spectral type of the gainer. It is suggested that in the Serpentids we see a thick disk nearly edge-on, but that the emission lines indicate the nature of the gainer inside.     

Circumstellar matter in Algols and Serpentids

A systematic search is reported for phenomena associated with circumstellar matter in interacting binary systems of the Algol and W Serpentis type. Ultraviolet emission lines have been detected by the author in 10 Algols and 6 Serpentids. No conspicuous difference exists between systems with disk accretion and those with direct stream impact. Evidence is indicated that the lines are formed predominantly by scattering in an induced stellar wind. Relative intensity of Fe II and Fe III emissions appears to be correlated with the spectral type of the gainer. It is suggested that in the Serpentids we see a thick disk nearly edge-on, but that the emission lines indicate the nature of the gainer inside.     

Modelling Spectral and Timing Properties of Accreting Black Holes: The Hybrid Hot Flow Paradigm

The general picture that emerged by the end of 1990s from a large set of optical and X-ray, spectral and timing data was that the X-rays are produced in the innermost hot part of the accretion flow, while the optical/infrared (OIR) emission is mainly produced by the irradiated outer thin accretion disc. Recent multiwavelength observations of Galactic black hole transients show that the situation is not so simple. Fast variability in the OIR band, OIR excesses above the thermal emission and a complicated interplay between the X-ray and the OIR light curves imply that the OIR emitting region is much more compact. One of the popular hypotheses is that the jet contributes to the OIR emission and even is responsible for the bulk of the X-rays. However, this scenario is largely ad hoc and is in contradiction with many previously established facts. Alternatively, the hot accretion flow, known to be consistent with the X-ray spectral and timing data, is also a viable candidate to produce the OIR radiation. The hot-flow scenario naturally explains the power-law like OIR spectra, fast OIR variability and its complex relation to the X-rays if the hot flow contains non-thermal electrons (even in energetically negligible quantities), which are required by the presence of the MeV tail in Cyg X-1. The presence of non-thermal electrons also lowers the equilibrium electron temperature in the hot flow model to ?100 keV, making it more consistent with observations. Here we argue that any viable model should simultaneously explain a large set of spectral and timing data and show that the hybrid (thermal/non-thermal) hot flow model satisfies most of the constraints.     

基于Myers模型的三维结冰数值仿真

三维结冰表面上的水膜流动和结冰增长是结冰计算模型应考虑的核心内容,其中广泛应用的是Myers模型。Myers模型考虑了空气剪切力和空气压力对结冰表面水膜流动的影响,以及冰层、水膜和空气之间的导热与对流传热对结冰速率的影响。本文在使用Myers模型进行结冰预测时,发现Myers模型对霜冰转化为明冰的判断标准存在缺陷,会在结冰极限处产生不合理的冰角。因此对Myers模型的结冰类型判断标准进行了修改,对机翼表面的结冰过程进行了更加准确的模拟,并应用了有效的离散算法计算水膜流动和结冰增长过程。对比了二维NACA0012翼型的单步法、多步法计算结果和实验结果。明冰结冰温度较低时,本文计算结果与实验结果吻合很好,明冰结冰温度较高时,本文对上冰角的计算与实验结果有一定差距。本文提供了三维GLC-305后掠翼的结冰计算结果和实验结果的对比,冰角厚度的计算结果略小于实验结果,但整体趋势一致。     

飞机机翼表面霜状冰结冰过程的数值模拟

提出了一种处理结冰后结冰表面固壁区域移动的移动边界技术,结合欧拉坐标系下空气-过冷水滴两相流动控制方程的计算,对霜状冰的结冰过程进行了数值模拟,得到了NACA0012机翼在0°和4°攻角下机翼表面结冰后形成的冰形,与文献中的实验数据对比,表明本文的方法是可行和有效的。