The recruitment and organizational integration of space personnel.

This paper describes the philosophy of selection of astronaut scientists. It deals mainly with psychological selection criteria oriented at the job demands. Generalizable results of the European selection campaign for Spacelab are reported. Additionally, some aspects of the organizational integration of astronauts are listed.     

The cost benefits of the Spacelab system to scientific investigations and space applications

In the past, one of the major problems in performing scientific investigations in space has been the high cost of developing, integrating, and transporting scientific experiments into space. The limited resources of unmanned spacecraft, coupled with the requirements for completely automated operations, was another factor contributing to the high costs of scientific research in space. In previous space missions after developing, integrating and transporting costly experiments into space and obtaining successful data, the experiment facility and spacecraft have been lost forever, because they could not be returned to earth. The objective of this paper is to present how the utilization of the Spacelab System will result in cost benefits to the scientific community, and significantly reduce the cost of space operations from previous space programs.The following approach was used to quantify the cost benefits of using the Spacelab System to greatly reduce the operational costs of scientific research in space. An analysis was made of the series of activities required to combine individual scientific experiments into an integrated payload that is compatible with the Space Transportation System (STS). These activities, including Shuttle and Spacelab integration, communications and data processing, launch support requirements, and flight operations were analyzed to indicate how this new space system, when compared with previous space systems, will reduce the cost of space research. It will be shown that utilization of the Spacelab modular design, standard payload interfaces, optional Mission Dependent Equipment (MDE), and standard services, such as the Experiment Computer Operating System (ECOS), allow the user many more services than previous programs, at significantly lower costs. In addition, the missions will also be analyzed to relate their cost benefit contributions to space scientific research.The analytical tools that are being developed at MSFC in the form of computer programs that can rapidly analyze experiment to Spacelab interfaces will be discussed to show how these tools allow the Spacelab integrator to economically establish the payload compatibility of a Spacelab mission.The information used in this paper has been assimilated from the actual experience gained in integrating over 50 highly complex, scientific experiments that will fly on the Spacelab first and second missions. In addition, this paper described the work being done at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to define the analytical integration tools and techniques required to economically and efficiently integrate a wide variety of Spacelab payloads and missions. The conclusions reached in this study are based on the actual experience gained at MSFC in its roles of Spacelab integration and mission managers for the first three Spacelab missions. The results of this paper will clearly show that the cost benefits of the Spacelab system will greatly reduce the costs and increase the opportunities for scientific investigation from space.     

Cost effectiveness of Spacelab experiments

Spacelab permits investigation in new seicntific disciplines like material processing, life sciences, chemistry, etc. The large mass and volume capabilities of Spacelab offer better possibilities for some areas of traditional space sciences like infrared astronomy, multi-spectral solar observations and large instruments for astronomical observations.Since free-flyers will require normally a new spacecraft development for each mission, the reusability of space qualified components and experiments will be a significant cost reduction factor over a long period. In the early phase of Spacelab utilisation, however, the scaling factor introduced by Spacelab utilisation, however, the scaling factor introduced by Spacelab results in higher payload development costs than originally appreciated.The costs of Spacelab utilisation are computed and compared with those of conventional free-flying satellites. The mission implementation costs and experiment development costs are shown for both cases. The Spacelab mission implementation costs are subdivided into NASA charges for the Standard Shuttle Mission, NASA charges to fly and operate Spacelab, the European costs of Spacelab payload integration and experiment development costs. In order to evaluate and compare mission implementation costs, the simple parameters are adopted of the cost per kg of experiments and the data collection-transmission capability of Shuttle/Spacelab and ESRO/ESA satellites. The mission implementation costs turn out to be very favourable for Spacelab. The experiment development costs, which are not included in the mission implementation costs, are compared for several free flyers with the corresponding development costs for several experiments of the first Spacelab payload. The comparison shows that the cost per kg of Spacelab experiment development is about five times less than of satellite experiments.     

Using computer graphics to enhance astronaut and systems safety.

Computer graphics is being employed at the NASA Johnson Space Center as a tool to perform rapid, efficient and economical analyses for man-machine integration, flight operations development and systems engineering. The Operator Station Design System (OSDS), a computer-based facility featuring a highly flexible and versatile interactive software package, PLAID, is described. This unique evaluation tool, with its expanding data base of Space Shuttle elements, various payloads, experiments, crew equipment and man models, supports a multitude of technical evaluations, including spacecraft and workstation layout, definition of astronaut visual access, flight techniques development, cargo integration and crew training. As OSDS is being applied to the Space Shuttle, Orbiter payloads (including the European Space Agency's Spacelab) and future space vehicles and stations, astronaut and systems safety are being enhanced. Typical OSDS examples are presented. By performing physical and operational evaluations during early conceptual phases. supporting systems verification for flight readiness, and applying its capabilities to real-time mission support, the OSDS provides the wherewithal to satisfy a growing need of the current and future space programs for efficient, economical analyses.     

Using Spacelab as a precursor of science operations for the Space Station

For more than 15 years, Spacelab, has provided a laboratory in space for an international array of experiments, facilities, and experimenters. In addition to continuing this important work, Spacelab is now serving as a crucial stepping-stone to the improved science, improved operations, and rapid access to space that will characterize International Space Station. In the Space Station era, science operations will depend primarily on distributed/remote operations that will allow investigators to direct science activities from their universities, facilities, or home bases. Spacelab missions are a crucial part of preparing for these activities, having been used to test, prove, and refine remote operations over several missions. The knowledge gained from preparing these Missions is also playing a crucial role in reducing the time required to put an experiment into orbit, from revolutionizing the processes involved to testing the hardware needed for these more advanced operations. This paper discusses the role of the Spacelab program and the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center- (MSFC-) managed missions in developing and refining remote operations, new hardware and facilities for use on Space Station, and procedures that dramatically reduce preparation time for flight.     

航天员微重力作业训练系统重力补偿控制策略

针对航天员微重力作业训练系统的重力场补偿控制这一关键技术,进行了理论和实验研究。分析了模拟微重力环境的机理,确定了微重力作业训练系统的总体结构方案,提出了一种基于电流反馈的重力补偿控制及多干扰力补偿控制策略。通过虚拟重力补偿控制实验,验证了在地面环境、动态作业过程中,模拟物体在不同空间重力加速度环境下的运动规律,实现了在重力方向模拟空间环境下物体移动的作业训练效果。研究成果为在地面实现三维作业训练系统的控制奠定了基础。     

Spacelab concept and its utilization for science

The first part of the paper is devoted to the presentation of the Spacelab concepts, for which detailed design studies are at present being carried out by ESRO. The second part concentrates on the utilization of the Spacelab for the various fields of science, namely: (1) Atmospheric and space plasma physics, (2) Astronomy and astrophysics, (3) Material science and (4) Life sciences. The advantages of using the Spacelab for observations in these fields as compared to conventional automated satellites are highlighted.     

European materials science investigations and associated experimental equipment within the Spacelab demonstration missions

This paper reviews shortly the results obtained by a preliminary call for experiment proposals for future Spacelab flights issued by the European Space Agency in April 1978. The results of this call indicate clearly the trend towards experiments performing studies on the state and the evolution of fluid media. The instrumentation used are mainly multipurpose instruments (furnaces, process chambers) already under development for the first Spacelab flight and new equipment currently under study.     

The experience in operation and improving the Orlan-type space suits

Nowadays significant experience has been gained in Russia concerning extravehicular activity (EVA) with cosmonauts wearing a semi-rigid space suit of the "Orlan" type. The conditions for the cosmonauts' vital activities, the operational and ergonomic features of the space suit and its reliability are the most critical factors defining the efficiency of the scheduled operation to be performed by the astronaut and his safety. As the missions performed by the cosmonauts during EVA become more and more elaborate, the requirements for EVA space suits and their systems become more and more demanding, resulting in their consistent advancement. This paper provides certain results of the space suit's operation and analysis of its major problems as applied to the Salyut and MIR orbiting stations. The modification steps of the space suit in the course of operation (Orlan-D, Orlan-DM, Orlan-DMA) and its specific features are presented. The concept of the suited cosmonauts' safety is described as well as trends for future space suit improvements.     

Bone loss during long term space flight is prevented by the application of a short term impulsive mechanical stimulus

In long term space flight, the mechanical forces applied to the skeleton are substantially reduced and are altered in character. This reduced skeletal loading results in a reduction in bone mass. Exercise techniques currently used in space can maintain muscle mass but the mechanical stimulus provided by this exercise does not prevent bone loss. By applying an external impulsive load for a short period each day, which is intended to mimic the heel strike transient, to the lower limb of an astronaut during a long term space flight (5 months), this study tests the hypothesis that the bone cells can be activated by an appropriate external mechanical stimulus to maintain bone mass throughout prolonged periods of weightlessness. A mechanical loading device was developed to produce a loading of the os-calcis similar to that observed during the heel strike transient. The device is activated by the astronaut to provide a transient load to the heel of one leg whilst providing an equivalent exercising load to the other leg. During the EUROMIR95 mission on the MIR space station, an astronaut used this device for a short period daily throughout the duration of the mission. Pre- and post-flight measurements of bone mineral density (BMD) of the os-calcis and femoral neck of the astronaut were made to determine the efficacy of the device in preventing loss of bone mineral during the mission. On the os-calcis which received the mechanical stimulus, BMD was maintained throughout the period of the flight, while it was reduced by up to 7% on the os-calcis which received no stimulus. Post-flight, BMD in both the stimulated and non-stimulated os-calcis reduces, the extent of this reduction however is less in the stimulated os-calcis. For the femoral neck, the mechanical stimulation does not produce a positive effect.     

Dosimetric measurements in manned missions

Detector packages consisting of thermoluminescence detectors (TLDs), nuclear emulsions and plastic nuclear track detectors were exposed in different sections of the MIR space station, inside the Spacelab during the IML1 mission, and inside Spacelab module and tunnel during the D2 mission. This report concentrates on total dose measurements with TLDs during these mission. The results are discussed and compared to results of former missions and to calculations. Finally, dose equivalents and mean quality factors for each mission are presented which are derived from the TLD results and results obtained from the other detector systems. Dose equivalents range between 200 μSvd⁻¹ and 700 μSvd⁻¹.     

Microgravity measurement assembly (MMA) for spacelab module missions

The microgravity measurement assembly (MMA) is a precision measurement facility for ground and on-orbit disturbance accelerations on board Spacelab, being currently under development by MBB/ERNO under DFVLR contract. MMA is using a new generation of micromechanical acceleration detectors developed by CSEM under ESTEC contract. Small dimensions of the triaxial sensor packages allow for installation very close to scientific experiments; mass is significantly reduced compared to conventional systems. Six or more of these mini-sensor packages are installed at the most g-sensitive experiments of Spacelab Module Missions. Acceleration and housekeeping data are processed in real time by a dedicated microcomputer and transmitted to the ground. Thus, for the first time, synchronized and comparable precision acceleration data are available in real time on ground for on-line judgement of the microgravity environment desired for experiment success, offering the possibility, for example of experiment repetition in case of excessive g-disturbances. Furthermore, MMA allows for immediate feedback to the crew concerning the microgravity effects of their dynamic behavior, with the aim of crew training towards lower disturbances. An additional mobile sensor package can be installed at vibration sources, e.g. pumps, centrifuges etc. or any arbitrary location inside the Spacelab Module. An impact hammer can be used together with MMA in order to measure in-flight structural transfer functions. The MMA on-board system and ground station and its planned utilization for the German Spacelab Mission D-2 is described.     

The metric camera experiment on the first spacelab flight

In the first Spacelab Mission which will take place in Sept. Oct. 1983 a Metric Camera will be flown as part of the Earth observation payload. The camera will be a modified high quality Aerial Survey Camera.The hardware development is finished and the instrument is already integrated into Spacelab.The application of Metric Cameras in Space, an area which is neglected up to now, can effectively contribute to an improved cartographic coverage of the Earth. The Metric Camera Experiment is a first step to fill this gap which can be realized by utilizing the extended capacities of the Space Transportation System.The paper outlines the scientific objectives of the experiment, describes in detail the camera system and deals with the operation and control philosophy during the mission.     

Life support system development in West Germany

The delivery of fully qualified Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLS) flight hardware for the Spacelab Flight Unit was completed in 1979, and the first Spacelab flight is scheduled for mid 1983.

With Spacelab approaching its operational stage, ESA has initiated the Follow-on Development Programme. The future evolution of Spacelab elements in a continued U.S./European cooperation is obviously linked to the U.S. STS evolution and leads from the sortie-mode improvements (Initial Step) towards pallet systems and module applications in unmanned and manned space platforms (Medium and Far Term Alternatives).

Extensive studies and design work have been accomplished on life support systems for Life Sciences Laboratories (Biorack) in Spacelab (incubators and holding units for low vertebrates).

Future long term missions require the implementation of closed loop life support systems and in order to meet the long range development cycle feasibility studies have been performed. Terrestrial applications of the life support technologies developed for space have been successfully implemented.     

Space platforms: A cost effective evolution of Spacelab operation

The Shuttle/Spacelab mode of space operations will soon provide ready access to space for a wide varity of experimenters. When the full capabilities of this system are utilized, an important tool will have been added to the research and development phases of the various disciplines. Although significant benefits can now be envisioned from using these systems, it has become evident that additional benefits to the users could be achieved if some of the available resources were augmented. Those resources include: power, thermal control; duration on orbit; stability; and orientation.This paper reports planning efforts in progress to determine what augmentation these systems should provide. To properly bound the study effort, a projection of the potential Spacelab activity through the 1980 decade is developed. Three major augmentation systems are examined and the benefits provided by each are outlined. One of these systems, the Science and Applications Space Platform, represents a very attractive concept and the potential cost effectiveness is examined in detail. After these analyses are completed, general conclusions on the cost and other benefits of Space Platforms are provided.     

French research program on the physiological problems caused by weightlessness. Use of the primate model

The need to acquire a better knowledge of the main biological problems induced by microgravity implies--in addition to human experimentation--the use of animal models, and primates seem to be particularly well adapted to this type of research. The major areas of investigation to be considered are the phospho-calcium metabolism and the metabolism of supporting tissues, the hydroelectrolytic metabolism, the cardiovascular function, awakeness, sleep-awakeness cycles, the physiology of equilibrium and the pathophysiology of space sickness. Considering this program, the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches de Medecine Aerospatiale, under the sponsorship of the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, developed both a program of research on restrained primates for the French-U.S. space cooperation (Spacelab program) and for the French-Soviet space cooperation (Bio-cosmos program), and simulation of the effects of microgravity by head-down bedrest. Its major characteristics are discussed in the study.     

航天员的模糊控制模型及应用展望

本文以航天员控制过程中的思维活动(概念、判断、推理和决断)为基础,用模糊集理论建立了航天员的模糊控制模型,并在地面模拟条件下,用航天员控制飞船时的实验结果说明了模型的有效性。本模型可以描述航天员控制载人航天飞行器(如飞船、航天飞机和空间站等)的控制行为。该模型的建立不仅为航天人—机—环境系统的总体分析、评价和设计提供新手段,而且为模糊控制理论的发展和模糊控制系统的分析、设计奠定了基础。     

SpaceMocap：在轨人体运动捕捉系统

SpaceMocap是一套基于多RGB-D相机的计算机视觉航天员运动捕捉系统。地面准备阶段，扫描航天员模型，并分别标定彩色相机的内参数。在轨采集阶段，3~4台相机布置在舱内角落，同步采集航天员任务视频。地面处理阶段，通过相机外参数标定和ICP方法实现点云融合，采用深度神经网络对人体关节点位置进行检测并初始化位姿参数，再用改进的ICP方法进行位姿求精，实现序列图像中关节角度跟踪。本系统搭载TG-2升空，对SZ-11航天员的任务视频进行了采集和处理，首次获取了在轨航天员的姿态(包括中性体位)、占位空间、运动参数等重要数据。结果表明，运动捕捉的模型与点云具有良好的重合度，关节点位置与关节角度具有较高的跟踪精度。SpaceMocap是我国首个在轨运动捕捉系统，它小型、轻质，具有计算机视觉特有的非接触测量、直观、高精度优势，无需在人体上粘贴任何标志，具有良好的抗遮挡能力，完全适用于微重力、狭小空间环境下的在轨应用 。     

超导核磁共振技术在航天员生命保障中的应用前景探究

长期空间飞行会对航天员的身心健康造成一定的不利影响,开展航天员生命保障的研究是非常必要的。核磁共振技术是疾病检查诊断的重要手段,同样在航天员生命保障医疗中将发挥重要的作用。文章结合国内外相关研究进展以及航天员选拔、训练和航天员医监医保的相关知识,探究了超导核磁共振技术在航天员生命保障中的应用前景。