Space technology transfer: Spin-off cases from Japan

Government organizations have to justify high expenditure during periods of financial crisis such as the one we are experiencing today. Space agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. This paper describes two technology transfer (TT) cases promoted by JAXA, in order to identify the organizational models and determinants of TT. The development of a TT process from space to Earth not only benefits the aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. The aim of the paper is to investigate who the actors are and the nature of their role, as well as the determinants of the TT process in the Japanese space sector. The case studies confirm the typical path of transfer as ‘Earth–space–Earth’.     

提高河北装备制造企业信息化水平的探讨

将信息化应用于装备制造业，对增强企业的综合竞争力，促进国民经济发展具有重要的意义。本文以河北省的装备制造企业为例，从企业信息化实施过程的角度总结了存在的不足和问题，然后提出了解决办法。     

The merger of two global commons: The need for new governance

The RUSI ‘Space and UK National Security’ conference was held in London on 2 October 2012 and, with the ‘Cyber Alliances: Strategy Partnerships in Cyber Space’ conference’ of 14–15 November 2012, brought together space and cyberspace specialists from more than 15 countries, across four continents. Alixe Buckerfield de la Roche reports on key points discussed across both conferences: (1) space as a shared domain, and building resilience; (2) governance; (3) national responses to space security; (4) partnerships and alliances, space situational awareness, space debris, and new initiatives; (5) the space–cyberspace merger; and (6) commercial and military sectors. Consensus on critical areas for further action emerged, and for that reason the conjunction of the two conferences was significant.     

An international symbol for the sustained exploration of space

As humanity prepares to extend its reach beyond low-Earth-orbit for the first time since the 1970s, a new symbol of international cooperation is needed to further promote the message of peace and collaboration such exploration entails. The space race that occurred between the USSR and the USA is an ill-suited model for long-term sustained space exploration because it is too costly and too resource-intensive for a single nation to bear. While competition is healthy for technology development, the success of a sustained space exploration strategy lies beyond technological capabilities. It lies in international cooperation, space policy, and public support. Without these, no program can realistically achieve a sustained presence in space beyond low-Earth orbit. To this effect, this paper proposes a cost-effective first step in the form of a universal symbol which, when placed alongside national flags displayed on hardware and astronaut/cosmonaut/taikonaut flight-suits, would send a strong message to the world that space exploration is done for the benefit of humanity as a whole, not just for spacefaring nations. The “Blue Marble”, the first complete picture of Earth taken from space by humans in 1972, fits this universally appealing symbol. This symbol requires no political collaboration between countries, yet is an image that anyone, anywhere in the world, can relate to regardless of nationality, ethnic origin or religious beliefs. Placed on the shoulder pads of human ’nauts – ambassadors of planet Earth – or prominently displayed on spacebound hardware, this symbol would send a universal message to present and future generations that, in space, our planet is working together for the benefit of everyone.     

Recent space developments in South Korea

Despite some setbacks – notably an indigenous launch failure – progress is being made in South Korea's space program and its public image has been boosted by the first flight of a Korean astronaut to the ISS. This report provides an update on recent and forthcoming space activities in the country and on its current cooperative arrangements.     

A new space vision for NASA—And for space entrepreneurs too?

Despite its scientific successes, NASA has over the past two decades lost its way, spending billions of dollars on transportation systems that have at bottom been failures. President Obama's cancellation of the costly and unwieldy Constellation program provides an opportunity for genuine reform of the agency and the US space program, through harnessing the innovatory and cost-effective power of commercial entrepreneurs. Examples of the kinds of project they might undertake – including solar power satellites, ‘space taxis’ and a space elevator – are discussed.     

The impact of US export controls on the Canadian space industry

The International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) govern the export of defense-related technologies and services from the USA. In 1999 Canada's exemption to ITAR was suspended because of American objections over some Canadian companies retransferring US technology to third countries. This paper is a first attempt to quantify the impact of ITAR on the Canadian space industry. Thirty-two space-related companies were contacted and a total of nine responses were received, representative of around 60% of the Canadian space industry in terms of workforce and revenue. According to the results, the Canadian space industry has been relatively effective in meeting the challenges imposed by ITAR. However, these workarounds do not diminish its negative impacts, particularly with respect to cost and schedule. It is expected that ITAR will continue to affect the Canadian space industry, as no near-term relief from the current regulatory environment is on the horizon.     

Fast-track development of space technology in China

China's space industry faces challenges from the rapid growth in domestic demand for satellite services, international competition from the other members of the space club and infiltration of its domestic markets by foreign space companies. To counter this the country is making space a priority in current plans to improve national economic and social development, paying particular attention to applications satellites. Policies aimed at accelerating development include increasing state support for space, improving management - especially of invested funds - creating a better infrastructure and aiming for serial production of satellite components. It is acknowledged that much can be learnt from other countries and China is keen to pursue cooperative endeavours, but it intends also to retain its independence.     

Economic value analysis of the return from the Korean astronaut program and the science culture diffusion activity in Korea

In this study, we analyze the economic effects from the Korean Astronaut Program (KAP) and the subsequent Science Culture Diffusion Activity (SCDA). Korea has had a huge practical effect on the development of science and technology and has increased international awareness of Korea by producing Korea's first astronaut. There has also been a large, ripple effect on space related industries. In addition, the KAP has exercised a far-reaching influence on Korean society and culture by boosting all science and engineering and inspiring national pride. After the KAP, astronauts' outreach activities, such as lectures for the general public; interviews on television, newspapers and magazines; participating in children's science camps; and distributing publications and DVDs about astronaut program for general public, were instituted for diffusing science culture. Thus, positive effects such as the promotion of Korea's level of technology, student interest in science and engineering fields, and the expansion of the industrial base were reinforced after the KAP. This study is aimed at evaluating the economic significance and the value of return through analyzing the effects of the KAP and the subsequent Science Culture Diffusion Activity.     

A normal space power? Understanding ‘security’ in Japan's space policy discourse

With the enactment of its ‘Basic Space Law’ in 2008, a significant shift occurred in Japan's space policy away from a narrowly circumscribed interpretation of the concept of space for ‘peaceful purposes’ to a broad understanding of space for ‘security’. Viewed in a global context, Japanese space policy appears symptomatic of a broadened and more malleable understanding of space for security purposes, as already advocated by several other leading spacefaring powers, and proponents of this understanding of space for security argue that this is consistent with international standards and the expectations of a ‘normal’ space power. By attempting to redefine understandings of ‘peace’ and ‘security’, however, the Basic Space Law and subsequent direction of Japanese space policy raise complex and ongoing issues over the interpretation of Japan's ‘Peace Constitution’. This article reviews policy and academic discussions of the recent evolution of Japanese space policy in this respect, arguing that greater emphasis on ‘security’ – understood in a deliberately broad sense in policy terms – has been key to articulating and justifying the reformulation and redirection of Japanese space policy, but that this also brings with it room for ambiguity over the exact nature of Japan's space ambitions at both national and regional levels.     

Technological learning through international collaboration: Lessons from the field

Countries on every continent are making new or renewed commitments to domestic satellite programs. These programs have the potential to address national needs by enhancing access to information, improving infrastructure and providing inspiration to the public. How do countries without local expertise in space technology begin a new satellite program? What is the role of international collaboration in supporting the efforts of a new space fairing country? This paper explores such questions by highlighting outputs from intensive field work in Africa and Asia. Specifically, the study explores case studies of early space activity in these countries to search for lessons about the management of a young space program. The observations from field work are compared to ideas from scholarly literature on technological learning. The findings are organized using principles from systems architecture. The paper presents a model that captures many of the influences and strategic decision areas for a collaborative satellite development project. The paper also highlights the growth of capability among African countries in the area of satellite technology.     

How far – if at all – should the USA cooperate with China in space?

China has engaged in a steady, long-standing effort to build and strengthen its space capabilities, achieving progressively more ambitious milestones and staking its claim as a major space power. It is also increasingly engaging in cooperative efforts. A number of issues must be weighed, however, before the USA should consider any collaboration with it. These include the essentially military nature of China’s space program, the fact that China’s intentions in space and decision-making process are far from ‘transparent’, and the way it uses its space activities to pursue foreign policy goals. While the latter could be useful in, e.g., reducing tensions on the Korean peninsular through a space-services-for-giving-up-missiles tradeoff, and while there is scope for collaboration in space science missions, there are no compelling reasons for the USA to pursue cooperation in human spaceflight with China.     

中国载人航天技术的历史性跨越

论述了发展载人航天工程对于增强综合国力和民族凝聚力、充分利用空间环境资源、明显降低空间飞行器的成本和风险、促进科技进步和高技术产业发展的重要意义;还论述了飞船研制返回再入升力控制技术、环境控制与生命保障技术、仪表与照明技术、人工运动控制技术、着陆缓冲技术、应急救生技术、回收着陆技术、再入防热技术取得的重大科技创新成果。     

Implementing international co-operation in space exploration

This article discusses the outcomes of an April 2005 workshop held at ISU in Strasbourg. Experts sought to tailor an international co-ordination mechanism that would achieve the classical benefits of international co-operation for the unique venture of space exploration. The mechanism they developed provides a permanent forum for those with vested interests in exploration (currently space agencies in key spacefaring nations) to exchange information about national plans and activities so as to build confidence in one another's programs and, to the extent they choose, to develop beneficial interdependencies. The product of this co-ordination effort would be a consolidated international exploration roadmap that would both inform and reflect national program decisions. The co-ordination mechanism would simultaneously involve, but in less central roles, other important interested parties (industry, the science community, other countries without current exploration programs), whose advice is important to the development of a consolidated roadmap. Recognizing that the stakeholders in exploration will almost certainly evolve over time, the mechanism also presents the flexibility to accommodate new players (e.g. companies and countries not yet with investments in exploration) in more central roles as they become stakeholders with vested interests in exploration.     

A framework for evaluating national space activity

Space technology and resources are used around the world to address societal challenges. Space provides valuable satellite services, unique scientific discoveries, surprising technology applications and new economic opportunities. Many developing countries formally recognize the advantages of space resources and pursue national level activity to harness them. There is limited data or documentation on the space activities of developing countries. Meanwhile, traditional approaches to summarize national space activity do not necessarily capture the types of activity that developing countries pursue in space. This is especially true if they do not have a formal national space program or office. Developing countries pursue national space activity through activities of many types—from national satellite programs to commercial use of satellite services to involvement with international space institutions. This research aims to understand and analyze these trends. This paper introduces two analytical frameworks for evaluating space activity at the national level. The frameworks are specifically designed to capture the activity of countries that have traditionally been less involved in space. They take a broad view of space related activity across multiple societal sectors and disciplines. The discussion explains the approach for using the frameworks as well as illustrative examples of how they can be applied as part of a research process. The first framework is called the Mission and Management Ladders. This framework considers specific space projects within countries and ranks them on “Ladders” that measure technical challenge and managerial autonomy. This first method is at a micro level of analysis. The second framework is called the Space Participation Metric (SPM). The SPM can be used to assign a Space Participation score to countries based on their involvement in various space related activities. This second method uses a macro level of analysis. The authors developed both frameworks as part of a long term research program about the space activities of developing countries. This aspect of the research focuses on harnessing multiple techniques to summarize complex, multi-disciplinary information about global space activity.     

Korea''s space development programme: Policy and law

Korea now has a rapidly expanding space programme with exploration aspirations. The government is giving priority to the aerospace industry and, to put it on a better footing, recently enacted a New Space Exploitation Promotion Act. The early history and current and future development of Korea's space activities are briefly described in advance of a comprehensive presentation of the contents of the Act, including launch licensing, liability, registration of space objects, use of satellite information, astronaut rescue, third party liability insurance and establishment of institutions and plans to assist the Korean space effort. A call is made for Asian countries to unite and further their space development through a regional space agency.     

The origin of the smaller, faster, cheaper approach in NASA’s solar system exploration program

The current emphasis on smaller, faster, cheaper (SFC) spacecraft in NASA’s solar system exploration program is the product of a number of interacting – even interdependent – factors. The SFC concept as applied to NASA’s solar system exploration program can be viewed as the vector sum of (1) the space science community’s desire for more frequent planetary missions to plug the data gaps, educate the next generation of scientists, provide missions to targets of opportunity, and enable programmatic flexibility in times of budgetary crisis; (2) the poor publicity garnered by NASA in the early 1990s and the resultant atmosphere of public criticism (creating an opportunity for reform); (3) The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization’s and the National Space Council community’s desire to advance the Space Exploration Initiative and their perception that the NASA culture at the time represented a barrier to the effective pursuit of space exploration; (4) the effective leadership of NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin; and (5) the diminishing budget profile for space sciences in the early 1990s. This paper provides a summary of the origin of the smaller, faster, cheaper approach in the planetary program. A more through understanding of the history behind this policy will enable analysts to assess more accurately the relative successes and failures of NASA’s new approach to solar system exploration.     

The export of space technology : Prospects and dangers

The export market for space technology, goods and services is still in its infancy, but trends indicate definite economic growth in prospect. Private companies are increasingly keen to find a foothold or increase their share in the ever widening market. National goverments are undertaking a variety of measures to help and encourage them in the export of space technology. Competition for the older US producers is sharpening from foreign firms. Political conflict is arising based on this competition and on the potential dual use of some space technologies for civilian and military purposes. The main Western industrialized countries have recently agreed on common Guidelines to control the export of launcher technology that could be used for delivering nuclear weapons. The ‘Guidelines for Sensitive Missile-Relevant Transfer’ will affect the export of much space technology and equipment.     

A systematic review of the Space technology transfer literature: Research synthesis and emerging gaps

In order to justify high expenditure during this period of financial crisis, Space Agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in Space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. The development of a technology transfer process from Space to Earth not only benefits the Aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. Technology transfer has been shown to stimulate innovation in business and commerce, support economic growth and provide a return on public investment in research and development (R&D). The aim of this paper is to systematically review the Space technology transfer literature and to suggest directions for future research. The range of research and studies in the literature on this topic requires a systematic review to summarize the results in an unbiased and balanced manner and to interpret these in a way that highlights the research gaps. This article presents an overview of the dominant thinking (explicit in selected articles from 1995 to present), indicating the problems of analysis, research gaps and a future research program.