US space exploration strategy: Is there a better way?

Despite the importance of space to modern life, the public has lost interest in its most human aspect, exploration. This is because spacefaring nations, and especially the USA, have clung on to outmoded cold war ways of thinking about it. The US attitude of ‘command’ over its international partners will no longer work and we must instead adopt a new, inclusive paradigm in the ‘wiki’ mould. With different countries leading different facets of a global, cooperative endeavour, and contributions reciprocated in ways valuable to all participants (e.g. through access to know-how or capacity building) there is a real possibility of advancing beyond near-Earth orbit. Keeping the ISS open for the training of future long-duration crews would be the first step in a unified human drive to the Moon, involving first a robotic village and then an international base, with Mars an ultimate goal. It the USA were to reorient its thinking towards such a project it would demonstrate true leadership.     

Towards an effective and adequately verifiable PPWT

The 2008 Russia–China proposal to the Conference on Disarmament on preventing space weapons has attracted wide attention. Lengthy debates have been made on the need for such a treaty and for two of its most disputed elements, namely prohibition of ground-based anti-satellite weapons and verification. This article argues that, regardless of verifiability, such a treaty is urgently needed for the benefit of international peace and security, and for the security interests of spacefaring countries. But in order to serve these purposes effectively, the treaty should at least explicitly prohibit testing, deployment and use of space-based weapons and ground-based anti-satellite weapons. Given the necessary political will, it is feasible to “adequately verify” these constraints. The verification regime should permit the incorporation of new measures in the future, combine international technical means and national technical means, combine remote-sensing technologies and on-site inspections, and be complemented by transparency and confidence-building measures.     

Observations in the thermal IR and visible of a retired satellite in the graveyard orbit,and comparisons to active satellites in GEO

There exists a population of defunct satellites in the geo-stationary arc that potentially pose a hazard to current and future operational satellites. These drifting, non-station-kept objects have a variety of ages and sizes, and many are trapped in libration orbits around the Earth?s two gravitational potential wells (the non-spherical nature of the Earth gives rise to two geo-potential wells or “stable points” that affect objects in geostationary and geosynchronous orbits), whereas others were boosted to higher altitudes into so-called “graveyard” orbits.     

The CPR approach to space sustainability: Commentaries on Weeden and Chow

Space sustainability is emerging as a core element of national policy and international initiatives. At this time, however, a coherent strategy and supporting policies have not been developed. To initiate a conversation to develop such a strategy, the authors have applied the principles developed by Elinor Ostrom for terrestrial common-pool resource (CPR) governance to near-Earth orbit in space. A concern arises as to whether Ostrom's eight principles are a good “fit” for application to space CPR because of the unique physical characteristics of space and the legal underpinnings of our presence there. This commentary will address selected issues raised by Weeden and Chow, and suggest alternative ways to approach near-Earth orbit sustainability.     

The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal

Using the global commons for “peaceful purposes” is agreed upon among states in principle but disputed in substance. While non-militarization has been superceded by the doctrine of non-aggression, the latter, as a necessary rather than sufficient condition for “peaceful purposes”, is tested to its limit by the pressing issue of space weaponization. An international treaty to plug the gaps of the Outer Space Treaty should be negotiated. This would require the prohibition of both weapons in outer space and anti-satellite weapons on Earth. The Draft Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects, proposed by Russia and China at the Conference on Disarmament, is an effort in this direction. However, divided views are held on several issues arising from the draft treaty, e.g. the efficiency of the current regime of outer space law, definitions of “weapons in space” and “threat or use of force”, and verification. A primary reason for US opposition to the draft treaty are security concerns over its space assets. However, exercising the right of self-defense is excluded from the obligations of disarmament and this is explicitly affirmed in the draft treaty.     

SETI in the light of cosmic convergent evolution

Theodosius Dobzhansky, one of the founding fathers of the modern evolutionary synthesis, once famously stated that “nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution”. Here it will be argued that nothing in astrobiology makes sense except in the light of “Cosmic Convergent Evolution” (CCE). This view of life contends that natural selection is a universal force of nature that leads to the emergence of similarly adapted life forms in analogous planetary biospheres. Although SETI historically preceded the rise of astrobiology that we have witnessed in the recent decade, one of its main tenets from the beginning was the convergence of life on a cosmic scale toward intelligent behavior and subsequent communication via technological means. The question of cultural convergence in terms of symbolic exchange, language and scientific capabilities between advanced interstellar civilizations has been the subject of ongoing debate. However, at the core of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence lies in essence a biological problem since even post-biological extraterrestrial intelligences must have had an origin based on self-replicating biopolymers. Thus, SETI assumes a propensity of the Universe towards biogenesis in accordance with CCE, a new evolutionary concept which posits the multiple emergence of life across the Cosmos. Consequently, we have to wonder about the biophilic properties the Universe apparently exhibits, as well as to try to find an encompassing theory that is able to explain this “fine-tuning” in naturalistic terms. The aims of this paper are as follows: 1) to emphasize the importance of convergent evolution in astrobiology and ongoing SETI research; 2) to introduce novel and biology-centered cosmological ideas such as the “Selfish Biocosm Hypothesis” and the “Evo Devo Universe” as valuable arguments in theorizing about the origin and nature of extraterrestrial intelligence and 3) to synthesize these findings within an emerging post-biological paradigm on which future SETI efforts may be founded.     

Taking a common-pool resources approach to space sustainability: A framework and potential policies

This paper examines Nobel Prize Winner Elinor Ostrom's principles for sustainable governance of common-pool resources (CPR), capturing the best practices of CPRs over the years, which avoid the “Tragedy of the Commons” without being either completely privatized or controlled by a Leviathan entity. Ostrom's principles highlight, inter alia, the need for clear boundary definitions, rules tailored to fit the domain, who has a say in formulation of collective-choice agreements and operational rules, monitoring of behavior, graduated penalties, and conflict resolution mechanisms. In the context of the space domain they highlight issues such as the definition of where space begins, gaps in the existing liability regime, the concept of collaborative space situational awareness, and how best to include emerging and developing space actors in negotiations and decision making. The paper concludes that Ostrom's principles highlight specific areas on which to focus initial space sustainability efforts and national and international policy. It also recommends further analysis into how best to translate her principles to the space domain, where they may not be wholly applicable because of the unique nature of space, and how to evolve space governance institutions and mechanisms to best suit the unique environment of outer space.     

The EU's emergent space diplomacy

Science and technology (S&T) have always been at the heart of the European political construction. This started in the Cold War through a series of pan-European collaborative schemes in a panoply of different scientific fields like molecular biology and nuclear research. However, while most of these early collaborative patterns focused on intra-European cooperation, in the post-Cold War era international S&T relations have evolved to encompass a broader international dimension. The European Union is now building a diverse and robust network of cooperation with non-EU partners to become a centre of gravity in international S&T affairs. This increasing linkage between S&T and foreign policy is particularly explicit in space activities. Even though it is the newest space actor in Europe, the EU is pushing the continent to extend the scope of its partnerships with Russia and China, while at the same time modifying its relations with the traditional European partner, the USA, illustrating therefore the emergence of a distinct “EU space diplomacy”.     

The contest for leadership in East Asia: Japanese and Chinese approaches to outer space

Japan and China, as two advanced spacefaring nations in Asia-Pacific region, are often referred to as rivals in space. China's successful manned space launch program in 2003 and ASAT test in 2007 were considered as turning points which potentially introduces a “space race in Asia”. This article argues that there are three defining arenas in a space race: competition for prestige or soft power, competition over military capability or hard power, and competition of international services or public goods. It analyzes the objectives, norms and logics of space policy in Japan and China, and argues that these two countries have quite different thinking over what to do in space, explaining that they are playing different games in the first two arenas. However, Japan and China are competing for leadership and influence over the region. APRSAF and APSCO, two similar regional space organizations, are the vehicles for this competition. It concludes that there is a space race only in the third arena as a competition for leadership in Asia.     

Broad-search algorithms for the spacecraft trajectory design of Callisto–Ganymede–Io triple flyby sequences from 2024 to 2040, Part I: Heuristic pruning of the search space

Triple flybys of the Galilean moons of Jupiter can capture a spacecraft into orbit about Jupiter or quickly adjust the Jupiter-centered orbit of an already captured spacecraft. Because Callisto does not participate in the Laplace resonance among Ganymede, Europa, and Io, triple flyby sequences involving gravity-assists of Callisto, Ganymede, and Io occur only aperiodically for limited time windows. An exhaustive search of triple-flyby trajectories over a 16-year period from 2024 to 2040 using “blind” searching would require 8,415,358 Lambert function calls to find only 127,289 possible triple flyby trajectories. Because most of these Lambert function calls would not converge to feasible solutions, it is much more efficient to prune the solution space using a heuristic algorithm and then direct a much smaller number of Lambert function calls to find feasible triple flyby solutions. The novel “Phase Angle Pruning Heuristic” is derived and used to reduce the search space by 99%.     

An international symbol for the sustained exploration of space

As humanity prepares to extend its reach beyond low-Earth-orbit for the first time since the 1970s, a new symbol of international cooperation is needed to further promote the message of peace and collaboration such exploration entails. The space race that occurred between the USSR and the USA is an ill-suited model for long-term sustained space exploration because it is too costly and too resource-intensive for a single nation to bear. While competition is healthy for technology development, the success of a sustained space exploration strategy lies beyond technological capabilities. It lies in international cooperation, space policy, and public support. Without these, no program can realistically achieve a sustained presence in space beyond low-Earth orbit. To this effect, this paper proposes a cost-effective first step in the form of a universal symbol which, when placed alongside national flags displayed on hardware and astronaut/cosmonaut/taikonaut flight-suits, would send a strong message to the world that space exploration is done for the benefit of humanity as a whole, not just for spacefaring nations. The “Blue Marble”, the first complete picture of Earth taken from space by humans in 1972, fits this universally appealing symbol. This symbol requires no political collaboration between countries, yet is an image that anyone, anywhere in the world, can relate to regardless of nationality, ethnic origin or religious beliefs. Placed on the shoulder pads of human ’nauts – ambassadors of planet Earth – or prominently displayed on spacebound hardware, this symbol would send a universal message to present and future generations that, in space, our planet is working together for the benefit of everyone.     

Reflections on the quest for international cooperation

Changed political objectives, straitened economic circumstances and an altered balance of capability and expertise in space endeavours have together produced more discussion of the need for international cooperation than ever before, but the meaning of the term has subtly shifted. Insisting on US ‘leadership’ is self-defeating; what is instead firmly desired by the USA's potential partners is a balanced relationship in which each nation makes an identifiable contribution and takes the lead in at least one of a package of projects. If this is going to happen, there must be an international forum or framework in which projects can be discussed and agreed. This in turn requires initiative at governmental level.     

Legal analysis of Sea Launch license: National security and environmental concerns

This paper analyzes the national security and environmental concerns surrounding the Sea Launch consortium's international license from a legal perspective. The growing market demand for a more affordable, reliable, and convenient commercial satellite launching service has led to the idea of Sea Launch—launching satellites from the sea near the Equator. However, this can pose potential conflicts between national security and foreign policy interests, and between environmental conservation and economic growth because of the international technology development issues around launching from the sea. This paper illustrates a case for balancing such multiple constraints via legal interpretation. The analysis is conducted in reference to 49 U.S.C. § 70101–70119 Commercial Space Launch Activities and 42 U.S.C. § 4321–4345 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. The paper also examines weather the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is binding on Sea Launch operations. Although the scope of this paper is limited mostly to the US law and the national security and environmental aspects of Sea Launch, it provides a useful example for policy making of an international collaborative technology development project.     

Space security through the transatlantic partnership

On 12–14 June 2011, a conference was convened in Prague entitled ”Space Security through the Transatlantic Partnership“, co-sponsored by the European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) and the Prague Security Studies Institute (PSSI). It was the first non-governmental transatlantic conference of its kind dedicated to this topic, attended by over 100 senior space policy officials and high-level representatives of multilateral institutions, NGOs, academia, and industry from Europe, the USA, and Japan. The overarching goal of the conference was to solicit and assess both converging and diverging views on the multifaceted subject of space security and to seek to establish an on-going “Track II” non-governmental process designed to assist with the crafting of a future architecture for the management of this key dimension of space policy on a trilateral, and eventually global, basis. This report summarizes the proceedings.     

Time Variations of Low-Energy Protons and Helium Nuclei (0.3–10 MeV/nucleon) during the Quiescent Time of Solar Activity in the Inner Heliosphere

Time variations with a duration of 0.6–1.5 years are studied in the interplanetary space for protons and helium nuclei with energies of 0.3–10 MeV per nucleon at a quiescent time of solar activity. It is shown that at 1 AU in the periods 1978–1981 and 1988–1990, at the phases of growth of the 21st and 22nd solar cycles, the background fluxes of these particles determined as minimum intensity levels in every month increased demonstrating steplike variations. At the same time, the intensity of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) decreased also with the formation of modulation steps. Each step of low-energy particles was finished by a deep minimum of intensity (gap) in both protons and helium nuclei and with a simultaneous short-term increase of the GCR intensity. We present the results of studying five such steps in the intensity of low-energy particles that were observed simultaneously and were opposite in phase with modulation steps of galactic particles. The lowest values of the H/He ratio were recorded at the end of every step, at the lowest intensities of these particles, i.e., in the gap. The true background population at 1 AU was detected precisely at these time intervals, when the contributions of flare particles and those accelerated in the international space were minimum. Various possibilities of the origination of the steplike variations of the background fluxes of protons and helium nuclei with energies of 0.3–10 MeV per nucleon, correlated with similar GCR variations, are discussed.     

Mechanical study on initial profile solution for inflatable reflector made of orthotropic material

The woven fabric membrane materials are widely used in space and terrestrial inflatable reflectors. However the material?s anisotropy makes the design analysis more complex. The deviation from the desired shape, so-called “W-profile error”, influences the precision of the membrane surface significantly. In this study, a model of an axisymmetric paraboloid surface using membrane theory is established for the purpose of facilitating the surface precision optimization. Analytical solutions for displacements of the reflector are derived. An iteration method of initial reflector profile solution is stated and a finite element (FE) software employed in the solution is presented. A case study is illustrated to make a comparison between numerical and theoretical analyses. Finally, the conclusions are drawn that the analytical method and the FE iterative method for initial profile solution are feasible and efficient.     

Program goals for the NASA/NOAA Earth Observation Program derived from a stakeholder value network analysis

The 2007 US National Research Council Decadal Survey for Earth Science and Applications from Space was the first consensus perspective produced by the US Earth Science community of the relative priorities among a sequence of 17 satellite missions over the course of the next decade. However, the Decadal Survey only captured the perspective of the science community, leading to questions about the inclusion of broader priorities from constituent communities and stakeholders. We present a stakeholder value network analysis for the NASA/NOAA Earth Observation Program. The analysis includes a rigorous articulation of the needs and objectives of 13 major stakeholders and a complete stakeholder value network with 190 individual “value flows” that capture the interactions between all the stakeholders. It produces a novel stakeholder map, graphically indicating the outputs most likely to create a lasting Earth Science program. The most important value loops and program outputs are used to derive a set of high-level program goals that suggest what NASA and NOAA should do, as well as how they should conduct business. The analysis concludes that international partnerships represent a strong potential partner for certain science missions with greater potential value delivery than currently-prioritized efforts with defense stakeholders and concludes that weather and land-use missions, in addition to climate missions, should be given highest priority; water, human health, and solid Earth missions should be given lower priority based on each science category's potential for delivering value to the entire stakeholder network.     

Earthly environmentalism and the space exploration movement, 1960–1990: A study in irresolution

Little analysis exists of the interaction between the two most influential modern science-based social movements: space exploration and environmentalism. Since 1970 the term “Spaceship Earth” has been in common usage and the notion that the world requires careful stewardship has been acknowledged. Yet NASA had comparatively little to do with this important process of conceptual change for decades. It was meteorologists and oceanographers, among others, who established new government agencies including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to pioneer areas like climatology. This paper examines how NASA’s view of itself as a “space” agency long underplayed Earth as a part of the Solar System. Conceptual conflicts continue, to the detriment of political and public support for space.     

图象处理并行算法分析及其实现

本文分析了图象处理中潜在的各种并行算法,给出了它们相应实现的并行结构,并阐述了评价这些算法的性能标准。这些研究对于并行图象处理机的发展是有益的。