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1.
Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer experiment 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
H. B. Niemann D. N. Harpold S. K. Atreya G. R. Carignan D. M. Hunten T. C. Owen 《Space Science Reviews》1992,60(1-4):111-142
The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer (GPMS) is a Probe instrument designed to measure the chemical and isotopic composition including vertical variations of the constituents in the atmosphere of Jupiter. The measurement will be performed by in situ sampling of the ambient atmosphere in the pressure range from approximately 150 mbar to 20 bar. In addition batch sampling will be performed for noble gas composition measurement and isotopic ratio determination and for sensitivity enhancement of non-reactive trace gases.The instrument consists of a gas sampling system which is connected to a quadrupole mass analyzer for molecular weight analysis. In addition two sample enrichment cells and one noble gas analysis cell are part of the sampling system. The mass range of the quadrupole analyzer is from 2 amu to 150 amu. The maximum dynamic range is 108. The detector threshold ranges from 10 ppmv for H2O to 1 ppbv for Kr and Xe. It is dependent on instrument background and ambient gas composition because of spectral interference. The threshold values are lowered through sample enrichment by a factor of 100 to 500 for stable hydrocarbons and by a factor of 10 for noble gases. The gas sampling system and the mass analyzer are sealed and evacuated until the measurement sequence is initiated after the Probe enters into the atmosphere of Jupiter. The instrument weighs 13.2 kg and the average power consumption is 13 W.The instrument follows a sampling sequence of 8192 steps and a sampling rate of two steps per second. The measurement period lasts appropriately 60 min through the nominal pressure and altitude range. 相似文献
2.
Israel G. Cabane M. Brun J-F. Niemann H. Way S. Riedler W. Steller M. Raulin F. Coscia D. 《Space Science Reviews》2002,104(1-4):433-468
ACP's main objective is the chemical analysis of the aerosols in Titan's atmosphere. For this purpose, it will sample the
aerosols during descent and prepare the collected matter (by evaporation, pyrolysis and gas products transfer) for analysis
by the Huygens Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS). A sampling system is required for sampling the aerosols in the
135'32 km and 22'17 km altitude regions of Titan's atmosphere. A pump unit is used to force the gas flow through a filter.
In its sampling position, the filter front face extends a few mm beyond the inlet tube. The oven is a pyrolysis furnace where
a heating element can heat the filter and hence the sampled aerosols to 250 °C or 600 °C. The oven contains the filter, which
has a thimble-like shape (height 28 mm). For transferring effluent gas and pyrolysis products to GCMS, the carrier gas is
a labeled nitrogen 15N2, to avoid unwanted secondary reactions with Titan's atmospheric nitrogen.
Aeraulic tests under cold temperature conditions were conducted by using a cold gas test system developed by ONERA. The objective
of the test was to demonstrate the functional ability of the instrument during the descent of the probe and to understand
its thermal behavior, that is to test the performance of all its components, pump unit and mechanisms.
In order to validate ACP's scientific performance, pyrolysis tests were conducted at LISA on solid phase material synthesized
from experimental simulation. The chromatogram obtained by GCMS analysis shows many organic compounds. Some GC peaks appear
clearly from the total mass spectra, with specific ions well identified thanks to the very high sensitivity of the mass spectrometer.
The program selected for calibrating the flight model is directly linked to the GCMS calibration plan. In order not to pollute
the two flight models with products of solid samples such as tholins, we excluded any direct pyrolysis tests through the ACP
oven during the first phase of the calibration. Post probe descent simulation of flight results are planned, using the much
representative GCMS and ACP spare models.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
3.
Stone E.C. Cohen C.M.S. Cook W.R. Cummings A.C. Gauld B. Kecman B. Leske R.A. Mewaldt R.A. Thayer M.R. Dougherty B.L. Grumm R.L. Milliken B.D. Radocinski R.G. Wiedenbeck M.E. Christian E.R. Shuman S. von Rosenvinge T.T. 《Space Science Reviews》1998,86(1-4):357-408
The Solar Isotope Spectrometer (SIS), one of nine instruments on the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), is designed to provide
high- resolution measurements of the isotopic composition of energetic nuclei from He to Zn (Z=2 to 30) over the energy range
from ∼10 to ∼100 MeV nucl−1. During large solar events SIS will measure the isotopic abundances of solar energetic particles
to determine directly the composition of the solar corona and to study particle acceleration processes. During solar quiet
times SIS will measure the isotopes of low-energy cosmic rays from the Galaxy and isotopes of the anomalous cosmic-ray component,
which originates in the nearby interstellar medium. SIS has two telescopes composed of silicon solid-state detectors that
provide measurements of the nuclear charge, mass, and kinetic energy of incident nuclei. Within each telescope, particle trajectories
are measured with a pair of two-dimensional silicon-strip detectors instrumented with custom, very large-scale integrated
(VLSI) electronics to provide both position and energy-loss measurements. SIS was especially designed to achieve excellent
mass resolution under the extreme, high flux conditions encountered in large solar particle events. It provides a geometry
factor of ∼40 cm2 sr, significantly greater than earlier solar particle isotope spectrometers. A microprocessor controls the
instrument operation, sorts events into prioritized buffers on the basis of their charge, range, angle of incidence, and quality
of trajectory determination, and formats data for readout by the spacecraft. This paper describes the design and operation
of SIS and the scientific objectives that the instrument will address.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
4.
Stone E.C. Cohen C.M.S. Cook W.R. Cummings A.C. Gauld B. Kecman B. Leske R.A. Mewaldt R.A. Thayer M.R. Dougherty B.L. Grumm R.L. Milliken B.D. Radocinski R.G. Wiedenbeck M.E. Christian E.R. Shuman S. Trexel H. von Rosenvinge T.T. Binns W.R. Crary D.J. Dowkontt P. Epstein J. Hink P.L. Klarmann J. Lijowski M. Olevitch M.A. 《Space Science Reviews》1998,86(1-4):285-356
The Cosmic-Ray Isotope Spectrometer is designed to cover the highest decade of the Advanced Composition Explorer's energy
interval, from ∼50 to ∼500 MeV nucl−1, with isotopic resolution for elements from Z≃2 to Z≃30. The nuclei detected in this
energy interval are predominantly cosmic rays originating in our Galaxy. This sample of galactic matter can be used to investigate
the nucleosynthesis of the parent material, as well as fractionation, acceleration, and transport processes that these particles
undergo in the Galaxy and in the interplanetary medium.
Charge and mass identification with CRIS is based on multiple measurements of dE/dx and total energy in stacks of silicon
detectors, and trajectory measurements in a scintillating optical fiber trajectory (SOFT) hodoscope. The instrument has a
geometrical factor of ∼r250 cm2 sr for isotope measurements, and should accumulate ∼5×106 stopping heavy nuclei (Z>2) in two
years of data collection under solar minimum conditions.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
5.
L. J. Lanzerotti K. Rinnert G. Dehmel F. O. Gliem E. P. Krider M. A. Uman G. Umlauft J. Bach 《Space Science Reviews》1992,60(1-4):91-109
The Lightning and Radio Emission Detector (LRD) instrument will be carried by the Galileo Probe into Jupiter's atmosphere. The LRD will verify the existence of lightning in the atmosphere and will determine the details of many of its basic characteristics. The instrument, operated in its magnetospheric mode at distances of about 5, 4, 3, and 2 planetary radii from Jupiter's center, will also measure the radio frequency (RF) noise spectrum in Jupiter's magnetosphere. The LRD instrument is composed of a ferritecore radio frequency antenna ( 100 Hz to 100 kHz) and two photodiodes mounted behind individual fisheye lenses. The output of the RF antenna is analyzed both separately and in coincidence with the optical signals from the photodiodes. The RF antenna provides data both in the frequency domain (with three narrow-band channels, primarily for deducing the physical properties of distant lightning) and in the time domain with a priority scheme (primarily for determining from individual RF waveforms the physical properties of closeby-lightning). 相似文献
6.
M. I. Desai G. M. Mason R. E. Gold S. M. Krimigis C. M. S. Cohen R. A. Mewaldt J. E. Mazur J. R. Dwyer 《Space Science Reviews》2007,130(1-4):243-253
Using high-resolution mass spectrometers on board the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), we surveyed the event-averaged
∼0.1–60 MeV/nuc heavy ion elemental composition in 64 large solar energetic particle (LSEP) events of cycle 23. Our results
show the following: (1) The Fe/O ratio decreases with increasing energy up to ∼10 MeV/nuc in ∼92% of the events and up to
∼60 MeV/nuc in ∼64% of the events. (2) The rare isotope 3He is greatly enhanced over the corona or the solar wind values in 46% of the events. (3) The heavy ion abundances are not
systematically organized by the ion’s M/Q ratio when compared with the solar wind values. (4) Heavy ion abundances from C–Fe exhibit systematic M/Q-dependent enhancements that are remarkably similar to those seen in 3He-rich SEP events and CME-driven interplanetary (IP) shock events. Taken together, these results confirm the role of shocks
in energizing particles up to ∼60 MeV/nuc in the majority of large SEP events of cycle 23, but also show that the seed population
is not dominated by ions originating from the ambient corona or the thermal solar wind, as previously believed. Rather, it
appears that the source material for CME-associated large SEP events originates predominantly from a suprathermal population
with a heavy ion enrichment pattern that is organized according to the ion’s mass-per-charge ratio. These new results indicate
that current LSEP models must include the routine production of this dynamic suprathermal seed population as a critical pre-cursor
to the CME shock acceleration process. 相似文献
7.
B. Ragent C. A. Privette P. Avrin J. G. Waring C. E. Carlston T. C. D. Knight J. P. Martin 《Space Science Reviews》1992,60(1-4):179-201
The objective of the Nephelometer Experient aboard the Probe of the Galileo mission is to explore the vertical structure and microphysical properties of the clouds and hazes in the atmosphere of Jupiter along the descent trajectory of the Probe (nominally from 0.1 to > 10 bars). The measurements, to be obtained at least every kilometer of the Probe descent, will provide the bases for inferences of mean particle sizes, particle number densities (and hence, opacities, mass densities, and columnar mass loading) and, for non-highly absorbing particles, for distinguishing between solid and liquid particles. These quantities, especially the location of the cloud bases, together with other quantities derived from this and other experiments aboard the Probe, will not only yield strong evidence for the composition of the particles, but, using thermochemical models, for species abundances as well. The measurements in the upper troposphere will provide ground truth data for correlation with remote sensing instruments aboard the Galileo Orbiter vehicle. The instrument is carefully designed and calibrated to measure the light scattering properties of the particulate clouds and hazes at scattering angles of 5.8°, 16°, 40°, 70°, and 178°. The measurement sensitivity and accuracy is such that useful estimates of mean particle radii in the range from about 0.2 to 20 can be inferred. The instrument will detect the presence of typical cloud particles with radii of about 1.0 , or larger, at concentrations of less than 1 cm3.Deceased. 相似文献
8.
The Advanced Composition Explorer 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Stone E.C. Frandsen A.M. Mewaldt R.A. Christian E.R. Margolies D. Ormes J.F. Snow F. 《Space Science Reviews》1998,86(1-4):1-22
The Advanced Composition Explorer was launched August 25, 1997 carrying six high-resolution spectrometers that measure the
elemental, isotopic, and ionic charge-state composition of nuclei from H to Ni (1≤Z≤28) from solar wind energies (∼1 keV nucl−1)
to galactic cosmic-ray energies (∼500 MeV nucl−1). Data from these instruments is being used to measure and compare the elemental
and isotopic composition of the solar corona, the nearby interstellar medium, and the Galaxy, and to study particle acceleration
processes that occur in a wide range of environments. ACE also carries three instruments that provide the heliospheric context
for ion composition studies by monitoring the state of the interplanetary medium. From its orbit about the Sun-Earth libration
point ∼1.5 million km sunward of Earth, ACE also provides real-time solar wind measurements to NOAA for use in forecasting
space weather. This paper provides an introduction to the ACE mission, including overviews of the scientific goals and objectives,
the instrument payload, and the spacecraft and ground systems.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
9.
J. G. Trotignon J. L. Michau D. Lagoutte M. Chabassière G. Chalumeau F. Colin P. M. E. Décréau J. Geiswiller P. Gille R. Grard T. Hachemi M. Hamelin A. Eriksson H. Laakso J. P. Lebreton C. Mazelle O. Randriamboarison W. Schmidt A. Smit U. Telljohann P. Zamora 《Space Science Reviews》2007,128(1-4):713-728
The main objective of the Mutual Impedance Probe (MIP), part of the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC), is to measure the electron
density and temperature of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko’s coma, in particular inside the contact surface. Furthermore,
MIP will determine the bulk velocity of the ionised outflowing atmosphere, define the spectral distribution of natural plasma
waves, and monitor dust and gas activities around the nucleus. The MIP instrumentation consists of an electronics board for
signal processing in the 7 kHz to 3.5 MHz range and a sensor unit of two receiving and two transmitting electrodes mounted
on a 1-m long bar. In addition, the Langmuir probe of the RPC/LAP instrument that is at about 4 m from the MIP sensor can
be used as a transmitter (in place of the MIP ones) and MIP as a receiver in order to have access to the density and temperature
of plasmas at higher Debye lengths than those for which the MIP is originally designed. 相似文献
10.
Mason G.M. Gold R.E. Krimigis S.M. Mazur J.E. Andrews G.B. Daley K.A. Dwyer J.R. Heuerman K.F. James T.L. Kennedy M.J. LeFevere T. Malcolm H. Tossman B. Walpole P.H. 《Space Science Reviews》1998,86(1-4):409-448
The Ultra Low Energy Isotope Spectrometer (ULEIS) on the ACE spacecraft is an ultra high resolution mass spectrometer designed
to measure particle composition and energy spectra of elements He-Ni with energies from ∼45 keV nucl−1 to a few MeV nucl−1.
ULEIS will investigate particles accelerated in solar energetic particle events, interplanetary shocks, and at the solar wind
termination shock. By determining energy spectra, mass composition, and their temporal variations in conjunction with other
ACE instruments, ULEIS will greatly improve our knowledge of solar abundances, as well as other reservoirs such as the local
interstellar medium. ULEIS is designed to combine the high sensitivity required to measure low particle fluxes, along with
the capability to operate in the largest solar particle or interplanetary shock events. In addition to detailed information
for individual ions, ULEIS features a wide range of count rates for different ions and energies that will allow accurate determination
of particle fluxes and anisotropies over short (∼few minutes) time scales.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
11.
We discuss isotopic abundance measurements of heavy (6 ≤ Z ≤ 14) solar energetic particles with energies from ∼15 to 70 MeV/nucleon,
focusing on new measurements made on SAMPEX during two large solar particle events in late 1992. These measurements are corrected
for charge/mass dependent acceleration effects to obtain estimates of coronal isotopic abundances and are compared with terrestrial
and solar wind isotope abundances. An example of new results from the Advanced Composition Explorer is included.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
12.
The Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3) for the Mars Express Mission 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
S. Barabash R. Lundin H. Andersson K. Brinkfeldt A. Grigoriev H. Gunell M. Holmström M. Yamauchi K. Asamura P. Bochsler P. Wurz R. Cerulli-Irelli A. Mura A. Milillo M. Maggi S. Orsini A. J. Coates D. R. Linder D. O. Kataria C. C. Curtis K. C. Hsieh B. R. Sandel R. A. Frahm J. R. Sharber J. D. Winningham M. Grande E. Kallio H. Koskinen P. Riihelä W. Schmidt T. Säles J. U. Kozyra N. Krupp J. Woch S. Livi J. G. Luhmann S. McKenna-Lawlor E. C. Roelof D. J. Williams J.-A. Sauvaud A. Fedorov J.-J. Thocaven 《Space Science Reviews》2006,126(1-4):113-164
The general scientific objective of the ASPERA-3 experiment is to study the solar wind – atmosphere interaction and to characterize
the plasma and neutral gas environment with within the space near Mars through the use of energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging
and measuring local ion and electron plasma. The ASPERA-3 instrument comprises four sensors: two ENA sensors, one electron
spectrometer, and one ion spectrometer. The Neutral Particle Imager (NPI) provides measurements of the integral ENA flux (0.1–60
keV) with no mass and energy resolution, but high angular resolution. The measurement principle is based on registering products
(secondary ions, sputtered neutrals, reflected neutrals) of the ENA interaction with a graphite-coated surface. The Neutral
Particle Detector (NPD) provides measurements of the ENA flux, resolving velocity (the hydrogen energy range is 0.1–10 keV)
and mass (H and O) with a coarse angular resolution. The measurement principle is based on the surface reflection technique.
The Electron Spectrometer (ELS) is a standard top-hat electrostatic analyzer in a very compact design which covers the energy
range 0.01–20 keV. These three sensors are located on a scanning platform which provides scanning through 180∘ of rotation. The instrument also contains an ion mass analyzer (IMA). Mechanically IMA is a separate unit connected by a
cable to the ASPERA-3 main unit. IMA provides ion measurements in the energy range 0.01–36 keV/charge for the main ion components
H+, He++, He+, O+, and the group of molecular ions 20–80 amu/q. ASPERA-3 also includes its own DC/DC converters and digital processing unit
(DPU). 相似文献
13.
Emergence of a Habitable Planet 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Kevin Zahnle Nick Arndt Charles Cockell Alex Halliday Euan Nisbet Franck Selsis Norman H. Sleep 《Space Science Reviews》2007,129(1-3):35-78
We address the first several hundred million years of Earth’s history. The Moon-forming impact left Earth enveloped in a hot
silicate atmosphere that cooled and condensed over ∼1,000 yrs. As it cooled the Earth degassed its volatiles into the atmosphere.
It took another ∼2 Myrs for the magma ocean to freeze at the surface. The cooling rate was determined by atmospheric thermal
blanketing. Tidal heating by the new Moon was a major energy source to the magma ocean. After the mantle solidified geothermal
heat became climatologically insignificant, which allowed the steam atmosphere to condense, and left behind a ∼100 bar, ∼500 K
CO2 atmosphere. Thereafter cooling was governed by how quickly CO2 was removed from the atmosphere. If subduction were efficient this could have taken as little as 10 million years. In this
case the faint young Sun suggests that a lifeless Earth should have been cold and its oceans white with ice. But if carbonate
subduction were inefficient the CO2 would have mostly stayed in the atmosphere, which would have kept the surface near ∼500 K for many tens of millions of years.
Hydrous minerals are harder to subduct than carbonates and there is a good chance that the Hadean mantle was dry. Hadean heat
flow was locally high enough to ensure that any ice cover would have been thin (<5 m) in places. Moreover hundreds or thousands
of asteroid impacts would have been big enough to melt the ice triggering brief impact summers. We suggest that plate tectonics
as it works now was inadequate to handle typical Hadean heat flows of 0.2–0.5 W/m2. In its place we hypothesize a convecting mantle capped by a ∼100 km deep basaltic mush that was relatively permeable to
heat flow. Recycling and distillation of hydrous basalts produced granitic rocks very early, which is consistent with preserved
>4 Ga detrital zircons. If carbonates in oceanic crust subducted as quickly as they formed, Earth could have been habitable
as early as 10–20 Myrs after the Moon-forming impact. 相似文献
14.
Bird M.K. Dutta-Roy R. Heyl M. Allison M. Asmar S.W. Folkner W.M. Preston R.A. Atkinson D.H. Edenhofer P. Plettemeier D. Wohlmuth R. Iess L. Tyler G.L. 《Space Science Reviews》2002,104(1-4):613-640
A Doppler Wind Experiment (DWE) will be performed during the Titan atmospheric descent of the ESA Huygens Probe. The direction
and strength of Titan's zonal winds will be determined with an accuracy better than 1 m s−1 from the start of mission at an altitude of ∼160 km down to the surface. The Probe's wind-induced horizontal motion will
be derived from the residual Doppler shift of its S-band radio link to the Cassini Orbiter, corrected for all known orbit
and propagation effects. It is also planned to record the frequency of the Probe signal using large ground-based antennas,
thereby providing an additional component of the horizontal drift. In addition to the winds, DWE will obtain valuable information
on the rotation, parachute swing and atmospheric buffeting of the Huygens Probe, as well as its position and attitude after
Titan touchdown. The DWE measurement strategy relies on experimenter-supplied Ultra-Stable Oscillators to generate the transmitted
signal from the Probe and to extract the frequency of the received signal on the Orbiter. Results of the first in-flight checkout,
as well as the DWE Doppler calibrations conducted with simulated Huygens signals uplinked from ground (Probe Relay Tests),
are described. Ongoing efforts to measure and model Titan's winds using various Earth-based techniques are briefly reviewed.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
15.
John O. Goldsten Edgar A. Rhodes William V. Boynton William C. Feldman David J. Lawrence Jacob I. Trombka David M. Smith Larry G. Evans Jack White Norman W. Madden Peter C. Berg Graham A. Murphy Reid S. Gurnee Kim Strohbehn Bruce D. Williams Edward D. Schaefer Christopher A. Monaco Christopher P. Cork J. Del Eckels Wayne O. Miller Morgan T. Burks Lisle B. Hagler Steve J. DeTeresa Monika C. Witte 《Space Science Reviews》2007,131(1-4):339-391
A Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer (GRNS) instrument has been developed as part of the science payload for NASA’s Discovery
Program mission to the planet Mercury. Mercury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) launched
successfully in 2004 and will journey more than six years before entering Mercury orbit to begin a one-year investigation.
The GRNS instrument forms part of the geochemistry investigation and will yield maps of the elemental composition of the planet
surface. Major elements include H, O, Na, Mg, Si, Ca, Ti, Fe, K, and Th. The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) portion detects
gamma-ray emissions in the 0.1- to 10-MeV energy range and achieves an energy resolution of 3.5 keV full-width at half-maximum
for 60Co (1332 keV). It is the first interplanetary use of a mechanically cooled Ge detector. Special construction techniques provide
the necessary thermal isolation to maintain the sensor’s encapsulated detector at cryogenic temperatures (90 K) despite the
intense thermal environment. Given the mission constraints, the GRS sensor is necessarily body-mounted to the spacecraft,
but the outer housing is equipped with an anticoincidence shield to reduce the background from charged particles. The Neutron
Spectrometer (NS) sensor consists of a sandwich of three scintillation detectors working in concert to measure the flux of
ejected neutrons in three energy ranges from thermal to ∼7 MeV. The NS is particularly sensitive to H content and will help
resolve the composition of Mercury’s polar deposits. This paper provides an overview of the Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer
and describes its science and measurement objectives, the design and operation of the instrument, the ground calibration effort,
and a look at some early in-flight data. 相似文献
16.
The invention of the neutron monitor pile for the study of cosmic-ray intensity-time and energy changes began with the discovery
in 1948 that the nucleonic component cascade in the atmosphere had a huge geomagnetic latitude dependence. For example, between
0° and 60° this dependence was a ∼ 200–400% effect – depending on altitude – thus opening the opportunity to measure the intensity
changes in the arriving cosmic-ray nuclei down to ∼1–2 GeV nucl−1 for the first time. In these measurements the fast (high energy) neutron intensity was shown to be a surrogate for the nuclear
cascade intensity in the atmosphere.
The development of the neutron monitor in 1948–1951 and the first geomagnetic latitude network will be discussed. Among its
early applications were:
(1) to prove that there exists interplanetary solar modulation of galactic cosmic-rays (1952), and;
(2) to provide the evidence for a dynamical heliosphere (1956).
With the world-wide distribution of neutron monitor stations that are presently operating (∼ 50) many novel investigations
are still to be carried out, especially in collaborations with spacecraft experiments.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
17.
Clusters of galaxies are self-gravitating systems of mass ∼1014–1015
h
−1 M⊙ and size ∼1–3h
−1 Mpc. Their mass budget consists of dark matter (∼80%, on average), hot diffuse intracluster plasma (≲20%) and a small fraction
of stars, dust, and cold gas, mostly locked in galaxies. In most clusters, scaling relations between their properties, like
mass, galaxy velocity dispersion, X-ray luminosity and temperature, testify that the cluster components are in approximate
dynamical equilibrium within the cluster gravitational potential well. However, spatially inhomogeneous thermal and non-thermal
emission of the intracluster medium (ICM), observed in some clusters in the X-ray and radio bands, and the kinematic and morphological
segregation of galaxies are a signature of non-gravitational processes, ongoing cluster merging and interactions. Both the
fraction of clusters with these features, and the correlation between the dynamical and morphological properties of irregular
clusters and the surrounding large-scale structure increase with redshift.
In the current bottom-up scenario for the formation of cosmic structure, where tiny fluctuations of the otherwise homogeneous
primordial density field are amplified by gravity, clusters are the most massive nodes of the filamentary large-scale structure
of the cosmic web and form by anisotropic and episodic accretion of mass, in agreement with most of the observational evidence.
In this model of the universe dominated by cold dark matter, at the present time most baryons are expected to be in a diffuse
component rather than in stars and galaxies; moreover, ∼50% of this diffuse component has temperature ∼0.01–1 keV and permeates
the filamentary distribution of the dark matter. The temperature of this Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM) increases with
the local density and its search in the outer regions of clusters and lower density regions has been the quest of much recent
observational effort.
Over the last thirty years, an impressive coherent picture of the formation and evolution of cosmic structures has emerged
from the intense interplay between observations, theory and numerical experiments. Future efforts will continue to test whether
this picture keeps being valid, needs corrections or suffers dramatic failures in its predictive power. 相似文献
18.
Scott D. Barthelmy Louis M. Barbier Jay R. Cummings Ed E. Fenimore Neil Gehrels Derek Hullinger Hans A. Krimm Craig B. Markwardt David M. Palmer Ann Parsons Goro Sato Masaya Suzuki Tadayuki Takahashi Makota Tashiro Jack Tueller 《Space Science Reviews》2005,120(3-4):143-164
he burst alert telescope (BAT) is one of three instruments on the
Swift MIDEX spacecraft to study gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). The BAT first detects the GRB and localizes the burst direction to an
accuracy of 1–4 arcmin within 20 s after the start of the event. The GRB trigger initiates an autonomous spacecraft slew to
point the two narrow field-of-view (FOV) instruments at the burst location within 20–70 s so to make follow-up X-ray and optical
observations. The BAT is a wide-FOV, coded-aperture instrument with a CdZnTe detector plane. The detector plane is composed
of 32,768 pieces of CdZnTe (4×4×2 mm), and the coded-aperture mask is composed of ∼52,000 pieces of lead (5×5×1 mm) with a
1-m separation between mask and detector plane. The BAT operates over the 15–150 keV energy range with ∼7 keV resolution,
a sensitivity of ∼10−8 erg s−1 cm−2, and a 1.4 sr (half-coded) FOV. We expect to detect > 100 GRBs/year for a 2-year mission. The BAT also performs an all-sky
hard X-ray survey with a sensitivity of ∼2 m Crab (systematic limit) and it serves as a hard X-ray transient monitor. 相似文献
19.
Yuri N. Kulikov Helmut Lammer Herbert I. M. Lichtenegger Thomas Penz Doris Breuer Tilman Spohn Rickard Lundin Helfried K. Biernat 《Space Science Reviews》2007,129(1-3):207-243
Because the solar radiation and particle environment plays a major role in all atmospheric processes such as ionization, dissociation,
heating of the upper atmospheres, and thermal and non-thermal atmospheric loss processes, the long-time evolution of planetary
atmospheres and their water inventories can only be understood within the context of the evolving Sun. We compare the effect
of solar induced X-ray and EUV (XUV) heating on the upper atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars since the time when the Sun
arrived at the Zero-Age-Main-Sequence (ZAMS) about 4.6 Gyr ago. We apply a diffusive-gravitational equilibrium and thermal
balance model for studying heating of the early thermospheres by photodissociation and ionization processes, due to exothermic
chemical reactions and cooling by IR-radiating molecules like CO2, NO, OH, etc. Our model simulations result in extended thermospheres for early Earth, Venus and Mars. The exospheric temperatures
obtained for all the three planets during this time period lead to diffusion-limited hydrodynamic escape of atomic hydrogen
and high Jeans’ escape rates for heavier species like H2, He, C, N, O, etc. The duration of this blow-off phase for atomic hydrogen depends essentially on the mixing ratios of CO2, N2 and H2O in the atmospheres and could last from ∼100 to several hundred million years. Furthermore, we study the efficiency of various
non-thermal atmospheric loss processes on Venus and Mars and investigate the possible protecting effect of the early martian
magnetosphere against solar wind induced ion pick up erosion. We find that the early martian magnetic field could decrease
the ion-related non-thermal escape rates by a great amount. It is possible that non-magnetized early Mars could have lost
its whole atmosphere due to the combined effect of its extended upper atmosphere and a dense solar wind plasma flow of the
young Sun during about 200 Myr after the Sun arrived at the ZAMS. Depending on the solar wind parameters, our model simulations
for early Venus show that ion pick up by strong solar wind from a non-magnetized planet could erode up to an equivalent amount
of ∼250 bar of O+ ions during the first several hundred million years. This accumulated loss corresponds to an equivalent mass of ∼1 terrestrial
ocean (TO (1 TO ∼1.39×1024 g or expressed as partial pressure, about 265 bar, which corresponds to ∼2900 m average depth)). Finally, we discuss and
compare our findings with the results of preceding studies. 相似文献
20.
David H. Rodgers Patricia M. Beauchamp Laurence A. Soderblom Robert H. Brown Gun-Shing Chen Meemong Lee Bill R. Sandel David A. Thomas Robert T. Benoit Roger V. Yelle 《Space Science Reviews》2007,129(4):309-326
MICAS is an integrated multi-channel instrument that includes an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer (80–185 nm), two high-resolution
visible imagers (10–20 μrad/pixel, 400–900 nm), and a short-wavelength infrared imaging spectrometer (1250–2600 nm). The wavelength ranges were chosen
to maximize the science data that could be collected using existing semiconductor technologies and avoiding the need for multi-octave
spectrometers. It was flown on DS1 to validate technologies derived from the development of PICS (Planetary Imaging Camera
Spectrometer). These technologies provided a novel systems approach enabling the miniaturization and integration of four instruments
into one entity, spanning a wavelength range from the UV to IR, and from ambient to cryogenic temperatures with optical performance
at a fraction of a wavelength. The specific technologies incorporated were: a built-in fly-by sequence; lightweight and ultra-stable,
monolithic silicon-carbide construction, which enabled room-temperature alignment for cryogenic (85–140 K) performance, and
provided superb optical performance and immunity to thermal distortion; diffraction-limited, shared optics operating from
80 to 2600 nm; advanced detector technologies for the UV, visible and short-wavelength IR; high-performance thermal radiators
coupled directly to the short-wave infrared (SWIR) detector optical bench, providing an instrument with a mass less than 10
kg, instrument power less than 10 W, and total instrument cost of less than ten million dollars. The design allows the wavelength
range to be extended by at least an octave at the short wavelength end and to ∼50 microns at the long wavelength end. Testing
of the completed instrument demonstrated excellent optical performance down to 77 K, which would enable a greatly reduced
background for longer wavelength detectors. During the Deep Space 1 Mission, MICAS successfully collected images and spectra
for asteroid 9969 Braille, Mars, and comet 19/P Borrelly. The Borrelly encounter was a scientific hallmark providing the first
clear, high resolution images and excellent, short-wavelength infrared spectra of the surface of an active comet’s nucleus. 相似文献