Space and maritime security–strategies for countering the pirates

Following previous work on space and internal security as part of the European Space Policy Institute's (ESPI) Space and Security programme, ESPI initiated a workshop dealing with an issue of high political as well as public concern – using space as an instrument in the broader strategic context of maritime security – together with the Austrian Institute for European and Security Policy (AIES), which has special expertise in security matters related to Europe. Over 50 high-ranking professionals took part in the 30 November 2009 event, “Space and Maritime Security - Strategies and Capabilities to Counter Piracy”, held at the Austrian Chamber of Commerce (WKÖ) in Vienna. The use of space assets for maritime security has moved up the political agenda as a result of the reliance of the EU ATALANTA NAVFOR mission on services and data provided by the European Union Satellite Centre (EUSC). The workshop therefore addressed technological capabilities as well as industrial approaches in the context of the political framework conditions. It provided a dialogue between space and non-space security communities.     

A Franco–German view of Europe's ambition in space for the 21st century

Europe has at last started to integrate the assets of its broad set of actors into a comprehensive European Space Strategy. But will this first approach be ambitious enough to strengthen Europe as a global actor? In this contribution, the individuals responsible for strategy in the French and German space agencies seek an answer to this question. They do so by reviewing the historical background to European space efforts, and its role in shaping present-day activities; setting forth a vision of how Europe should proceed in space, and measuring current progress in drafting a European space strategy against this vision.     

ESA strategic planning for space exploration

The European Space Agency (ESA) is pursuing an independent strategic planning process for consolidating a destination driven (LEO, Moon, Mars) space exploration strategy. ESA's space exploration strategy is driven by the goals to maximise knowledge gain and to contribute to economic growth. International cooperation is a key pillar of ESA's strategy as it is considered both, an enabler for achieving common goals and a benefit, opening new perspective for addressing future challenges. The achievement of ESA's space exploration strategy is enabled through international partnerships. The interagency coordination process conducted within the framework of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) plays an important role in laying the foundations for future partnerships. It has achieved so far the development of a common vision for space exploration, a common plan for implementing the vision in the form of the Global Exploration Roadmap, as well as a common approach for articulating the value of global space exploration. ESA has been a strong promoter and supporter of the interagency coordination process conducted within ISECG and thanks to its unique expertise in international cooperation the Agency has contributed to its success.     

Global partnerships: Expanding the frontiers of space exploration education

Globalization is creating an interdependent space-faring world and new opportunities for international partnerships that strengthen space knowledge development and transfer. These opportunities have been codified in the Global Exploration Strategy, which endorses the “inspirational and educational value of space exploration” [1]. Also, during the 2010 Heads of Space Agencies Summit celebrating the International Academy of Astronautics’ (IAA) 50th Anniversary, space-faring nations from across the globe issued a collective call in support of robust international partnerships to expand the frontiers of space exploration and generate knowledge for improving life on Earth [2].Educators play a unique role in this mission, developing strategic partnerships and sharing best educational practices to (1) further global understanding of the benefits of space exploration for life on Earth and (2) prepare the next generation of scientists required for the 21st Century space workforce. Educational Outreach (EO) programs use evidence-based, measurable outcomes strategies and cutting edge information technologies to transfer space-based science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) knowledge to new audiences; create indigenous materials with cultural resonance for emerging space societies; support teacher professional development; and contribute to workforce development initiatives that inspire and prepare new cohorts of students for space exploration careers. The National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Morehouse School of Medicine (MSM) have sustained a 13-year space science education partnership dedicated to these objectives.This paper briefly describes the design and achievements of NSBRI's educational programs, with special emphasis on those initiatives' involvement with IAA and the International Astronautical Congress (IAC). The IAA Commission 2 Draft Report, Space for Africa, is discussed as a model for developing sustainable partnerships and indigenous programs that support Africa's steady emergence as a global space-faring force. The IAC will provide timely: 2011 South Africa will provide timely feedback to refine that report's strategies for space life sciences education and public engagement in Africa and around the globe.     

The National Space Biomedical Research Institute's education and public outreach program: Working toward a global 21st century space exploration society

Space Exploration educators worldwide are confronting challenges and embracing opportunities to prepare students for the global 21st century workforce. The National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), established in 1997 through a NASA competition, is a 12-university consortium dedicated to space life science research and education. NSBRI's Education and Public Outreach Program (EPOP) is advancing the Institute's mission by responding to global educational challenges through activities that: provide teacher professional development; develop curricula that teach students to communicate with their peers across the globe; provide women and minority US populations with greater access to, and awareness of science careers; and promote international science education partnerships.A recent National Research Council (NRC) Space Studies Board Report, America's Future in Space: Aligning the Civil Program with National Needs, acknowledges that “a capable workforce for the 21st century is a key strategic objective for the US space program… (and that) US problems requiring best efforts to understand and resolve…are global in nature and must be addressed through mutual worldwide action”. [1] This sentiment has gained new momentum through a recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) report, which recommends that the life of the International Space Station be extended beyond the planned 2016 termination. [2] The two principles of globalization and ISS utility have elevated NSBRI EPOP efforts to design and disseminate science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) educational materials that prepare students for full participation in a globalized, high technology society; promote and provide teacher professional development; create research opportunities for women and underserved populations; and build international educational partnerships.This paper describes select EPOP projects and makes the case for using innovative, emerging information technologies to transfer space exploration knowledge to students, engage educators from across the globe in discourse about science curricula, and foster multimedia collaborations that inform citizens about the benefits of space exploration for life on Earth. Special references are made to educational activities conducted at professional meetings in Austria, Canada, France, China, Greece, Italy, Russia, Scotland and Spain.     

High energy-density propulsion—reducing the risk to humans in planetary exploration

The potential benefits to humankind of space exploration are tremendous. Space is not only the final frontier but is also the next marketplace. The orbital space above Earth offers tremendous opportunities for both strategic assets and commercial development. The critical obstacle retarding the use of the space around the Earth is the lack of low cost access to orbit. Further out, the next giant leap for mankind will be the human exploration of Mars. Almost certainly within the next 30 years, a human crew will brave the isolation, the radiation, and the lack of gravity to walk on and explore the Red planet. Both of these missions will change the outlook and perspective of every human being on the planet. However, these missions are expensive and extremely difficult. Chemical propulsion has demonstrated an inability to achieve orbit cheaply and is a very high-risk option to accomplish the Mars mission. An alternative solution is to develop a high performance propulsion system. Nuclear propulsion has the potential to be such a system. The question will be whether humanity is willing to take on the challenge.     

Criteria for developing and testing Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures (TCBMs) for outer space activities

Space systems play an important role in sustaining the development, prosperity and security of many nations. As more nations become critically reliant on space systems, questions of maintaining safety and strategic stability in outer space have come to the fore. Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures (TCBMs) for outer space activities have an important role to play in providing clarity about the intentions of States and in articulating norms of behaviour in outer space. TCBMs take several forms. They may be the elaboration of basic principles related to the exploration and use of outer space, political measures related to establishing norms of conduct, information-sharing activities to improve the transparency of outer space activities, operational practices which demonstrate a commitment to mutual cooperation in outer space, or consultative mechanisms. We present an analytical framework for evaluating potential TCBMs and illustrate the application of this framework to examples of potential operational, regulatory, treaty-based and declaratory TCBMs.     

Leadership in space transportation

Rather than aiming at overall preemenence in space, as in the past, it is important for the USA now to specify goals and objectives for its space programme. In the space transportation market, the USA faces long-term competition. Planned properly, the Space Shuttle, Space Station and transfer stages can be used as a unique transport system, forcing other suppliers to compete on US terms. Such a total transport service system could also include ELV support. In entering into international space agreements, the government must take into account the objective of maintaining the competitiveness of the US commercial sector.     

Space technology for humanity: A profile for the coming 50 years

Applications of space technology have provided remarkable benefits for humanity since the dawn of the Space Age and India presents an excellent example of the way space is able to benefit developing countries in areas as divergent as communications, education, disaster management, health-care, environmental monitoring, agriculture, water management and mapping. Nevertheless access to these benefits remains inequitable, with a large number of mainly developing countries and poorer sections of society not yet able to share in them. In addition, the world faces serious global challenges in the coming 50 years. The author discusses these challenges and the way they can be met using space technology, as well as ways of making space more inclusive. Key will be creating multilateral systems of systems. Some reform of laws and policies will also be needed.     

International cooperation in space for security enhancement

This is the text of a report prepared by the UN Secretary-General, International Cooperation in Space Activities for Enhancing Security in the Post-Cold War Era. It discusses what can be done in this field - both by states acting cooperatively and by the relevant specialized agencies of the UN - in areas such as arms control and conversion of military technologies, commercialization and proliferation, environmental protection and scientific and technical cooperation. Various confidence-building measures to increase global security are discussed and the need to improve developing countries' access to space technology via the establishment of regional education centres and an international space information centre is emphasized.     

NASA's in-space technology experiments program: Status and plans

Experience with the Shuttle and free-flying satellites as technology test beds has shown the feasibility and desirability of using space assets as facilities for technology development. Thus, by the time the space station era arrives, technologists will be ready for an accessible engineering facility in space. Along with the scientific and commercial space development communities, the technology development community has been participating in defining requirements for this in-space facility. As the 21st century is approached, it is expected that many flights to the Space Station Freedom will carry one or more RT&E experiments. The experiments are likely to utilize both the pressurized volume, and the external payload attachment facilities. Based on the success of instrumenting the Shuttle itself to obtain ascent and descent aerothermodynamic data a unique, but extremely important, class of experiments will use the space station itself as an experimental vehicle.     

A framework for evaluating national space activity

Space technology and resources are used around the world to address societal challenges. Space provides valuable satellite services, unique scientific discoveries, surprising technology applications and new economic opportunities. Many developing countries formally recognize the advantages of space resources and pursue national level activity to harness them. There is limited data or documentation on the space activities of developing countries. Meanwhile, traditional approaches to summarize national space activity do not necessarily capture the types of activity that developing countries pursue in space. This is especially true if they do not have a formal national space program or office. Developing countries pursue national space activity through activities of many types—from national satellite programs to commercial use of satellite services to involvement with international space institutions. This research aims to understand and analyze these trends. This paper introduces two analytical frameworks for evaluating space activity at the national level. The frameworks are specifically designed to capture the activity of countries that have traditionally been less involved in space. They take a broad view of space related activity across multiple societal sectors and disciplines. The discussion explains the approach for using the frameworks as well as illustrative examples of how they can be applied as part of a research process. The first framework is called the Mission and Management Ladders. This framework considers specific space projects within countries and ranks them on “Ladders” that measure technical challenge and managerial autonomy. This first method is at a micro level of analysis. The second framework is called the Space Participation Metric (SPM). The SPM can be used to assign a Space Participation score to countries based on their involvement in various space related activities. This second method uses a macro level of analysis. The authors developed both frameworks as part of a long term research program about the space activities of developing countries. This aspect of the research focuses on harnessing multiple techniques to summarize complex, multi-disciplinary information about global space activity.     

Space and the fate of humanity

Current growth and consumption rates on Earth cannot be sustained into the future. Space technology is already a vital tool in the management of the planet and we should look at it to mitigate some of the problems we face. However, this should not include colonization of interstellar space. Rather we should focus on using solar energy from space and on mining asteroids, both of which would be feasible if the Moon was developed as a space base and power station. The most difficult and expensive part of getting into space is escaping Earth's gravity - something that could be avoided once a presence was established on the Moon. A lunar base would also provide the obvious site from which to reach GEO, travel to Mars or back to Earth and, ultimately, to explore the further reaches of the Solar System.     

The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal

Using the global commons for “peaceful purposes” is agreed upon among states in principle but disputed in substance. While non-militarization has been superceded by the doctrine of non-aggression, the latter, as a necessary rather than sufficient condition for “peaceful purposes”, is tested to its limit by the pressing issue of space weaponization. An international treaty to plug the gaps of the Outer Space Treaty should be negotiated. This would require the prohibition of both weapons in outer space and anti-satellite weapons on Earth. The Draft Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects, proposed by Russia and China at the Conference on Disarmament, is an effort in this direction. However, divided views are held on several issues arising from the draft treaty, e.g. the efficiency of the current regime of outer space law, definitions of “weapons in space” and “threat or use of force”, and verification. A primary reason for US opposition to the draft treaty are security concerns over its space assets. However, exercising the right of self-defense is excluded from the obligations of disarmament and this is explicitly affirmed in the draft treaty.     

Recent and future activities of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs

This article discusses the development, and the current and future work, of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. The Office is active both as a source of information, education and training on space and as a secretariat to COPUOS and its Subcommittees; it also performs a role in the monitoring and implementation of various space-related legal treaties. Presently—and as part of the drive to use space to improve life on Earth—the bulk of its work is guided by the Vienna Declaration produced at UNISPACE III.     

Space policy challenges facing the Barack Obama administration

President Barack Obama faces space policy challenges in security, commercial and civil areas in an era in which the use of space assets for these ends is irreversible. The very future of space is linked to addressing the challenges within the first term of the Obama administration. This paper draws on, but does not attempt to summarize, discussions at the National Space Forum 2008 organized by the Eisenhower Center for Space and Defense Studies at the United States Air Force Academy and the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Washington, DC. The goal of the forum was to examine the key decisions that will need to be made in regard to space policy by facilitating debate among the security, commercial and civil space sectors, and the broader national policy community. The paper focuses on choices which, for budgetary or other reasons, cannot be delayed. A brief discussion of the issues surrounding each choice is presented, followed by the implications of pursuing different choices. One key assumption underlies everything: resources available for activities in space will not grow significantly in real terms over the course of the Obama administration.     

Space for science, enterprise and environment: the UK draft Space Strategy

For the UK, space is primarily a means to an end and not an end in itself. This approach has been described as utilitarian. The British National Space Centre describes it as user oriented: the purpose of going into space should be to provide cost-effective information or services to the users, whether these are the science community, commercial operators and customers, or public sector bodies. The new draft UK Space Strategy, published on 22 January 2003, provides the underpinning rationale for this approach, which derives in part from the very individual way in which the UK organises its interests in space.     

Financing of space assets

The commercialization of space activities would increase if countries or companies could get more financial support. Space activities involve a high level of risk, however, which is why financial institutions are reluctant to advance credit. The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (Unidroit) is interested in finding legal ways to satisfy commercial and financial needs by improving creditors’ guarantees and it has been proposing a draft Protocol on matters concerning space assets. This article aims to show why this subject has attracted the attention of both developing and developed countries. It also attempts to predict the consequences of the Protocol for space activities in developing countries.     

International outer space law

This report is an edited version of a talk given by Professor Christol at the Conference on Law and Life in Space, held at the Center for Aerospace Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, in September 1986. Professor Christol reviews the principles of space law as they relate to the relations between states, through existing treaties and agreements. He offers a hope that, through ‘strategic stability’, conditions will emerge for further agreements, and for public international outer space law to become more rigorous.     

Taking space to the public

The UK space industry is an important part of the British economy and likely to become more so, but it needs well-educated graduates, government support and investment. Such an effort would be aided by an educated public. Education is an important part of a successful space industry policy. The Space Education Council, supported by the BNSC, is doing important work talking to the public about space. This article argues that there is a need for more space education work and reports on the Space Education Council's recent symposium.