Biological space experiments for the simulation of Martian conditions: UV radiation and Martian soil analogues.

The survivability of resistant terrestrial microbes, bacterial spores of Bacillus subtilis, was investigated in the BIOPAN facility of the European Space Agency onboard of Russian Earth-orbiting FOTON satellites (BIOPAN I -III missions). The spores were exposed to different subsets of the extreme environmental parameters in space (vacuum, extraterrestrial solar UV, shielding by protecting materials like artificial meteorites). The results of the three space experiments confirmed the deleterious effects of extraterrestrial solar UV radiation which, in contrast to the UV radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, also contains the very energy-rich, short wavelength UVB and UVC radiation. Thin layers of clay, rock or meteorite material were shown to be only successful in UV-shielding, if they are in direct contact with the spores. On Mars the UV radiation climate is similar to that of the early Earth before the development of a protective ozone layer in the atmosphere by the appearance of the first aerobic photosynthetic bacteria. The interference of Martian soil components and the intense and nearly unfiltered Martian solar UV radiation with spores of B. subtilis will be tested with a new BIOPAN experiment, MARSTOX. Different types of Mars soil analogues will be used to determine on one hand their potential toxicity alone or in combination with solar UV (phototoxicity) and on the other hand their UV protection capability. Two sets of samples will be placed under different cut-off filters used to simulate the UV radiation climate of Mars and Earth. After exposure in space the survival of and mutation induction in the spores will be analyzed at the DLR, together with parallel samples from the corresponding ground control experiment performed in the laboratory. This experiment will provide new insights into the principal limits of life and its adaptation to environmental extremes on Earth or other planets which and will also have implications for the potential for the evolution and distribution of life.     

Biologically weighted measurement of UV radiation in space and on Earth with the biofilm technique.

Biological dosimetry has provided experimental proof of the high sensitivity of the biologically effective UVB doses to changes in atmospheric ozone and has thereby confirmed the predictions from model calculations. The biological UV dosimeter 'biofilm' whose sensitivity is based on dried spores of B. subtilis as UV target weights the incident UV radiation according to its DNA damaging potential. Biofilm dosimetry was applicated in space experiments as well as in use in remote areas on Earth. Examples are long-term UV measurements in Antarctica, measurements of diurnal UV profiles parallel in time at different locations in Europe, continuous UV measurements in the frame of the German UV measurement network and personal UV dosimetry. In space biofilms were used to determine the biological efficiency of the extraterrestrial solar UV, to simulate the effects of decreasing ozone concentrations and to determine the interaction of UVB and vitamin D production of cosmonauts in the MIR station.     

Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I.

Spores of different strains of Bacillus subtilis and the Escherichia coli plasmid pUC19 were exposed to selected conditions of space (space vacuum and/or defined wavebands and intensities of solar ultraviolet radiation) in the experiment ER 161 "Exobiological Unit" of the Exobiology Radiation Assembly (ERA) on board of the European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA). After the approximately 11 months lasting mission, their responses were studied in terms of survival, mutagenesis in the his (B. subtilis) or lac locus (pUC19), induction of DNA strand breaks, efficiency of DNA repair systems, and the role of external protective agents. The data were compared with those of a simultaneously running ground control experiment. The survival of spores treated with the vacuum of space, however shielded against solar radiation, is substantially increased, if they are exposed in multilayers and/or in the presence of glucose as protective, whereas all spores in "artificial meteorites", i.e. embedded in clays or simulated Martian soil, are killed. Vacuum treatment leads to an increase of mutation frequency in spores, but not in plasmid DNA. Extraterrestrial solar ultraviolet radiation is mutagenic, induces strand breaks in the DNA and reduces survival substantially; however, even at the highest fluences, i.e. 3 x 10(8) J m-2, a small but significant fraction of spores survives the insolation. Action spectroscopy confirms results of previous space experiments of a synergistic action of space vacuum and solar UV radiation with DNA being the critical target.     

Survival of microorganisms in space: A review

Spores of $\text{Bacillus subtilis}$ were exposed to selected factors of space (vacuum, solar UV radiation, heavy ions of cosmic radiation), and their response was studied after recovery. These investigations were supplemented by ground-based studies under simulated space conditions. The vacuum of space did not inactivate the spores. However, vacuum-induced structural changes in the DNA, and probably in the proteins, caused a supersensitivity to solar UV radiation. This phenomenon is caused by the production of specific photoproducts in DNA and protein, which cannot be removed by normal cellular repair processes. In vegetative bacterial cells, exposed to vacuum, cell dehydration led to damage of the cell membrane, which could be partly repaired during subsequent incubation. The high local effectiveness of the cosmic heavy ions further decreases the chance that spores can survive for any length of time in space. Nonetheless, a spore travelling through space and protected from ultraviolet radiation could possibly survive an interplanetary journey. Such a situation favors panspermia as a possible explanation for the origin of life.     

Sterilisation properties of the Mars surface and atmospheric environment.

The radiative and chemical conditions at the surface and in the lower Martian atmosphere are computed at various latitudes and seasons combining a 2D photochemical model and radiation simulations. In most situations, the solar UV B and C radiations reach the surface however, suspended dust and, in polar cases, ozone can constitute an effective UV shield. The daytime and night time concentrations of the sterilizing oxidants: OH, H2O2 and O3 are determined, as well as the concentration of the substances which could influence the metabolism of microorganisms. The possible habitats of a remaining Mar's life as well as the possibilities of contamination by resistant earth life forms will be described.     

太阳活动突发过程对临近空间大气影响的模拟

空间天气对地球及近地空间具有重要影响,大的空间天气事件对中上层大气动力学和成分具有不同的影响。利用全大气耦合模式WACCM,针对太阳耀斑、太阳质子、地磁暴三类事件,以太阳活动平静期2015年5月10-14日的GEOS-5数据为模式背景场,通过F_10.7、离子产生率、Kp及Ap指数设置,分别模拟三类事件对临近空间大气温度、密度和臭氧的影响。结果表明耀斑事件在三类事件中对临近空间大气温度和密度的影响最为显著。平流层大气温度增加是由耀斑辐射增强引起平流层臭氧吸收紫外辐射发生的光化学反应所致,耀斑事件引起平流层和低热层温度增加约为2～3 K,低热层大气相对密度增加在6%以内;太阳质子事件及磁暴事件主要影响低热层,但太阳质子事件和磁暴事件对低热层温度扰动不大于1 K。     

Long-term survival of bacterial spores in space.

On board of the NASA Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), spores of Bacillus subtilis in monolayers (10(6)/sample) or multilayers (10(8)/sample) were exposed to the space environment for nearly six years and their survival was analyzed after retrieval. The response to space parameters, such as vacuum (10(-6) Pa), solar electromagnetic radiation up to the highly energetic vacuum-ultraviolet range (10(9) J/m2) and/or cosmic radiation (4.8 Gy), was studied and compared to the results of a simultaneously running ground control experiment. If shielded against solar ultraviolet (UV)-radiation, up to 80 % of spores in multilayers survive in space. Solar UV-radiation, being the most deleterious parameter of space, reduces survival by 4 orders of magnitude or more. However, up to 10(4) viable spores were still recovered, even in completely unprotected samples. Substances, such as glucose or buffer salts serve as chemical protectants. With this 6 year study in space, experimental data are provided to the discussion on the likelihood of "Panspermia".     

Biological dosimetry to determine the UV radiation climate inside the MIR station and its role in vitamin D biosynthesis

The vitamin D synthesis in the human skin, is absolutely dependent on UVB radiation. Natural UVB from sunlight is normally absent in the closed environment of a space station like MIR. Therefore it was necessary to investigate the UV radiation climate inside the station resulting from different lamps as well as from occasional solar irradiation behind a UV-transparent quartz window. Biofilms, biologically weighting and integrating UV dosimeters successfully applied on Earth (e.g. in Antarctica) and in space (D-2, Biopan I) were used to determine the biological effectiveness of the UV radiation climate at different locations in the space station. Biofilms were also used to determine the personal UV dose of an individual cosmonaut. These UV data were correlated with the concentration of vitamin D in the cosmonaut's blood and the dietary vitamin D intake. The results showed that the UV radiation climate inside the Mir station is not sufficient for an adequate supply of vitamin D, which should therefore be secured either by vitamin D supplementat and/or by the regular exposure to special UV lamps like those in sun-beds. The use of natural solar UV radiation through the quartz window for ‘sunbathing’ is dangerous and should be avoided even for short exposure periods.     

Thymine photoproduct formation and inactivation of intact spores of Bacillus subtilis irradiated with short wavelength UV (200-300nm) at atmospheric pressure and in vacuo.

Vacuum exposure renders the survival of spores of Bacillus subtilis approximately five times more sensitive to ultraviolet light irradiation than exposure under atmospheric conditions. The photoproduct formation in spores irradiated under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions is compared to the photoproduct formation in spores irradiated at atmospheric pressure. Compared to irradiation at atmospheric pressure, where only the "spore photoproduct" 5-thyminyl-5,6-dihydrothymine (TDHT) can be detected, two additional photoproducts, known as the c,s and t,s isomers of thymine dimer (T<>T) are produced in vacuo. The spectral efficiencies for photoproduct formation in spores under atmospheric and vacuum conditions are compared. Since there is no increased formation of TDHT after irradiation in vacuum, TDHT cannot be made responsible for the observed vacuum effect. "Vacuum specific" photoproducts may cause a synergistic response of spores to the simultaneous action of ultraviolet light (UV) and UHV. Three different mechanisms are discussed for the enhanced sensitivity of B. subtilis spores to UV radiation in vacuum. The experiments described contribute valuable research information on the chance for survival of microorganisms in outer space.     

Microorganisms and biomolecules in space environment experiment ES 029 on Spacelab-1.

Bacterial spores are proper test organisms for studying problems of space biology and exobiology. During the Spacelab 1 mission, studies on the limiting factors for survival of Bacillus subtilis spores in free space have been performed. An exposure tray on the pallet of Spacelab 1 accomodated 316 samples of dry spores for treatment with space vacuum and/or the following selected wavelengths of solar UV: > 170 nm, 220 nm, 240nm, 260nm and 280 nm. After recovery, inactivation, mutation induction, reparability, and photochemical damages in DNA and protein have been studied. The results contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of increased UV sensitivity of bacterial spores in vacuo and to a better assessment of the chance of survival of resistant forms in space and of interplanetary transfer of life.     

Sun CubE OnE: A multi-wavelength synoptic solar micro satellite

The Sun cubE onE (SEE) is a 12U CubeSat mission proposed for a phase A/B study to the Italian Space Agency that will investigate Gamma and X-ray fluxes and ultraviolet (UV) solar emission to support studies in Sun-Earth interaction and Space Weather from LEO. More in detail, SEE’s primary goals are to measure the flares emission from soft-X to Gamma ray energy range and to monitor the solar activity in the Fraunhofer Mg II doublet at 280 nm, taking advantage of a full disk imager payload. The Gamma and X-ray fluxes will be studied with unprecedented temporal resolution and with a multi-wavelength approach thanks to the combined use of silicon photodiode and silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) -based detectors. The flare spectrum will be explored from the keV to the MeV range of energies by the same payload, and with a cadence up to 10 kHz and with single-photon detection capabilities to unveil the sources of the solar flares. The energy range covers the same bands used by GOES satellites, which are the standard bands for flare magnitude definition. At the same time SiPM detectors combined with scintillators allow to cover the non-thermal bremsstrahlung emission in the gamma energy range. Given its UV imaging capabilities, SEE will be a key space asset to support detailed studies on solar activity, especially in relation to ultraviolet radiation which strongly interacts with the upper layers of the Earth’s atmosphere, and in relation to space safety, included in the field of human space exploration. The main goal for the UV payload is to study the evolution of the solar UV emission in the Mg II band at two different time scales: yearly variations along the solar cycle and transient variations during flare events. The Mg II index is commonly used as a proxy of the solar activity in the Sun-as-a-star paradigm, in which solar irradiance variations in the UV correlate with the variations in stratospheric ozone concentrations and other physical parameters of the Earth high atmosphere. SEE data will be used together with space and ground-based observatories that provide Solar data (e.g. Solar Orbiter, IRIS, GONG, TSST), high energy particle fluxes (e.g. GOES, MAXI, CSES) and geomagnetic data in a multi-instrument/multi-wavelength/multi-messenger approach.     

The potential of the lichen symbiosis to cope with the extreme conditions of outer space II: germination capacity of lichen ascospores in response to simulated space conditions.

Complementary to the already well-studied microorganisms, lichens, symbiotic organisms of the mycobiont (fungi) and the photobiont (algae), were used as "model systems" in which to examine the ecological potential to resist to extreme environments of outer space. Ascospores (sexual propagules of the mycobiont) of the lichens Fulgensia bracteata, Xanthoria elegans and Xanthoria parietina were exposed to selected space-simulating conditions (up to 16 h of space vacuum at 10(-3) Pa and UV radiation at 160 nm < or = lambda < or = 400 nm), while embedded in the lichen fruiting bodies. After exposure, the ascospores were discharged and their viability was tested as germination capacity on different culture media including those containing Mars regolith simulant. It was found that (i) the germination rate on media containing Mars regolith simulant was as high as on other mineral-containing media, (ii) if enclosed in the ascocarps, the ascospores survived the vacuum exposure, the UV-irradiation as well as the combined treatment of vacuum and UV to a high degree. In general, 50 % or more viable spores were recovered, with ascospores of X. elegans showing the highest survival. It is suggested that ascospores inside the ascocarps are well protected by the anatomical structure, the gelatinous layer and the pigments (parietin and carotene) against the space parameters tested.     

Model simulations of the impact of the 27-day solar rotation period on stratospheric ozone and temperature

Results are presented from two-year simulations of the effects of short-term solar ultraviolet (UV) variability using the Met. Office coupled chemistry-climate model. The model extends from the ground to 0.1 mbar and contains a complete range of chemical reactions allowing representation of all the main ozone formation and destruction processes in the stratosphere. The simulations were achieved by incorporating a 27-day oscillation in the pre-calculated model photolysis rates. Amplitudes for this signal were determined using solar spectral UV observations from the SOLar STellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE) instrument. Two experiments were carried out, one in which the UV variability was included in both the photolysis and radiation schemes and one in which only the photolysis scheme was modified.

The model reproduced several main features of observed correlations between short-term solar UV variability and both ozone and temperature in the tropical upper stratosphere, including the downward propagation of the phase lag and sensitivities of ozone and temperature to solar UV which are similar in magnitude to those observed. In the lower stratosphere, the ozone response to solar UV variability has not been well characterised from observations. Both model runs show a reversal of the propagation of phase lag below 10mb. The model response was found to be different between the two runs indicating that radiatively induced dynamical effects may play a significant role in the ozone response to solar UV variability.     

Survival rates of some terrestrial microorganisms under simulated space conditions.

In connection with planetary quarantine, we have been studying the survival rates of nine species of terrestrial microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, yeasts, fungi, etc.) under simulated interstellar conditions. If common terrestrial microorganisms cannot survive in space even for short periods, we can greatly reduce expenditure for sterilizing space probes. The interstellar environment in the solar system has been simulated by low temperature, high vacuum (77 k, 4 x 10(-6) torr), and protons irradiation from a Van de Graaff generator. After exposure to a barrage of protons corresponding to about 250 years of irradiation in solar space, Tobacco mosaic virus, Bacillus subtilis spores, Aspergillus niger spores and Clostridiun mangenoti spores showed survival rates of 82%, 45%, 28%, and 25%, respectively. Furthermore. pathogenic Candida albicans showed 7% survival after irradiation corresponding to about 60 years in space.     

临近空间太阳紫外辐射环境模拟与地区差异

太阳紫外辐射是临近空间能量输入的主要来源之一,对其在中层大气的辐射特性进行研究,是研究临近空间大气成分与密度变化、光化学反应以及动力学过程的重要基础。依托“鸿鹄”临近空间探测专项计划,利用MODTRAN5辐射传输模型及卫星实测数据,模拟并对比中国11个主要地形区上空临近空间（20~50 km）紫外辐射（200~400 nm）垂直分布和季节演变的异同,计算了臭氧含量、太阳天顶角和日地距离等关键因素对辐射强度的影响。结果表明,各地形区的辐射流量垂直分布廓线和年较差垂直分布廓线较为一致,在地理位置上毗邻的地区辐射特性及季节演变较为接近,但在太阳紫外的不同波段之间区别较大。研究成果为临近空间探测实验提供了数据支撑,为大气反演等相关领域提供参考。      

紫外后向散射探测臭氧总量的反演误差研究

通过探测紫外后向散射获取臭氧总量目前已经成为臭氧总量探测的主要方法之一. 本文以模拟计算为主要方法, 从模式计算误差, 反演算法误差和仪器误差三方面着手, 对影响臭氧总量反演精度的各个参数进行分析研究, 并对由其引起的臭氧总量反演误差进行定量计算, 研究结果对臭氧总量反演精度的提高和实际观测资料的处理有着重要的指导意义.      

Biological UV dosimeters in simulated space conditions.

Polycrystalline uracil thin layers participate in the phage and uracil response (PUR) experiment, assigned to the biological dosimetry of the extraterrestrial solar radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). In ground based experiments (experiment verification tests), the following space parameters were simulated and studied: temperature, vacuum and short wavelength UV (UV-C, down to 200 nm) radiation. The closed uracil samples proved to be vacuum-tight for 7 days. In the tested temperature range (from -20 to +40 degrees C) the uracil samples are stable. The kinetic of dimer formation (dimerization) and reversion (monomerization) of uracil dimers due to short wavelength UV radiation was detected, the monomerization efficiency of the polychromatic deuterium lamp is higher than that of the germicidal lamp. A mathematical model describing the kinetic of monomerization-dimerization was constructed. Under the influence of UV radiation the dimerization-monomerization reactions occur simultaneously, thus the additivity law of the effect of the various wavelengths is not applicable.     

Fundamental studies concerning planetary quarantine in space.

If there is a possibility that the organisms carried from Earth to space can live for a significant period on planets, the contamination of planets should be prevented for the purpose of future life-detection experiments. In connection with quarantine for interplanetary missions, we have examined the survivabilities of terrestrial microorganisms under simulated space conditions. In this study, examined the survivabilities of terrestrial organisms under simulated Mars conditions. The Mars conditions were simulated by ultraviolet (UV) and proton irradiation under low temperature, high vacuum, and simulated gaseous conditions. After exposure to the simulated Mars condition, the survivabilities of the organisms were examined. The spores of Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger, some anaerobic bacterias and algaes, showed considerably high survivabilities even after UV and proton irradiation corresponding to 200 years on Mars. This subject is not restricted to academic curiosity but concerns problems involving the contamination of Mars with terrestrial organisms carried by space-probes.     

Hypotheses on the appearance of life on Earth (review).

It is generally accepted within the natural sciences that life emerged on Earth by a kind of proto-Darwinian evolution from molecular assemblies that were predominantly formed from the various constituents of the primitive atmosphere and hydrosphere. Evolutionary stages under discussion are: the self-organization of spontaneously formed biomolecules into early precursors of life (protobionts), their stepwise evolution via (postulated) protocells to (postulated) progenotes and the Darwinian evolution from progenotes to the three kingdoms of contemporary organisms (archaebacteria, eubacteria and eukaryotes). Considerable discrepancies between scientists have arisen because all evolutionary stages from prebiotic molecules to progenotes are entirely hypothetical and so are the postulated environmental conditions. We can only theorize that all those environmental conditions that allow the existence of the various forms of contemporary life might have allowed also the development of their precursors. Because of all these difficulties the hypothesis that life came to our planet from a remote place of our universe (panspermia) has been revived. But experimental evidence only supports the view that spores can--under favorable circumstances--survive a relatively short journey within our solar system (interplanetary transfer of life). It is extremely unlikely that spores can survive a journey of hundreds or thousands of years through interstellar space.     

Sun–Earth relation: Historical development and present status – A brief review

The Sun and Earth are intimately related. A few decades ago, it was assumed that the relationship was only through the incidence of solar visible and infrared radiation on the surface of the Earth. However, it was soon realized that many powerful solar radiations reached the top of the terrestrial atmosphere but got absorbed in the upper part of the atmosphere, causing significant changes in the terrestrial environment. In this review, various processes are described, first on the Sun where various solar structures evolve, later in the interplanetary space due to escaping solar wind, and further in the interaction of the solar wind with the Earth’s magnetic field, containing it in the magnetosphere and entering through the neutral point in the magnetotail. Resulting phenomena like auroras, ring current, etc., are described. Present status of solar and interplanetary environments and their terrestrial effects is briefly outlined.