Beyond global: the international imperative of space

Despite provisions declarations that outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all states, it is a finite resource. This article argues for the need to ensure rational use of this resource via a major restructuring of space law. Focusing on telecommunications it proposes a change in the assignment of radio-spectrum and suggests that space must be treated as a means of advancing genuine globalisation.     

Estonian space policy and governance in the international space community

Despite the global financial crisis, which dominated 2008 and the first half of 2009, Estonia has decided to invest in a space programme. Estonia has extensive experience in the field of astrophysics and has developed capacities in various areas of remote sensing applications. It is on its way to becoming an active ESA partner. This article examines how Estonia is setting its way as a space nation and describes the new context and the role that various bodies are playing in the process. The paper describes the vision and strategy for space activities in the country. An overview of the possible measures to be taken to support the enterprises and scientific institutions with the highest potential for space cooperation is discussed, as are various risks in making progress in the space field, and measures for overcoming these.     

Improving international space cooperation: Considerations for the USA

In 2000 there were 40 different countries that had registered space agencies. By 2009 that number had continued to grow to 55. This article discusses how cooperation allows a nation to leverage resource and reduce risk; improve global engagement; and enhance diplomatic prestige of engaged states, political sustainability and workforce stability. The obstacles and impediments to cooperation are substantial, and are manifested through various anti-collaborative behaviors. To achieve success, these obstacles and impediments must be understood and confronted. The article examines the substantial challenges posed by technology transfer constraints, international and domestic politics, and exceptionalism perspectives. Given the imperative to cooperate, four frameworks (cooperation, augmentation, interdependence, and integration) can be employed to overcome these challenges and achieve success.     

The legacy of the international space year

This article examines the results of International Space Year (ISY). After discussing how and why the idea was conceived, it details the actions taken to bring ISY about and the projects that were to be carried out. The author examines the achievements of the year and how they are likely to continue to influence space policy in the longer term. Successes include the creation - and continuation under another name - of SAFISY; an ongoing willingness among countries and organizations to coordinate their data and avoid wasteful redundancy; a bottom-up approach to global mission planning; and greater public perception of the significance of space.     

Russia's resurgence: Prospects for space policy and international cooperation

Based on a joint study initiated in 2007–2008 by the Policy planning staff (CAP) of the French Foreign Ministry and the space agency CNES, which brought together experts, researchers and industry insiders, this article considers the factors behind Russia's recent resurgence and the possible revival of its space programme. It examines how far the latter will require international cooperation in order to progress further and discusses likely areas of profitable collaboration with Europe in general and France in particular, given that country's long history of space cooperation with Russia and the need in the mid-term future to share the burden of developing ambitious new space programs. While there is in principle much potential, especially in the area of space transportation, there are also numerous challenges and uncertainties. How these are resolved will affect the level and success of any cooperative efforts of both sides.     

Role of the current young generation within the space exploration sector

The space sector gathers together people from a variety of fields who work in the industry on different levels and with different expertise. What is often forgotten is the impact and role of the current young generation. Their engagement is of great importance as undeniably today's young ‘space generation’ will be defining the direction of future space exploration.Today's vision of future human and robotic space exploration has been set out in the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). This focuses on sustainable, affordable and productive long-term goals. The strategy begins with the International Space Station (ISS) and then expands human presence into the solar system, including a human mission to Mars.This paper presents a general overview of the role of today's youth within the space exploration sector and the challenges to overcome. To complete this perspective, we present results from a survey made among students and young professionals about their levels of awareness of the GER. The respondents presented their opinion about current aspects of the GER and prioritised the GER's objectives. It is hoped that the paper will bring a new perspective into the GER and a contribution to the current GER strategy.     

A failure of international space cooperation: the International Earth Observing System

This paper examines the failure of the Earth Observation International Coordination Working Group to implement an International Earth Observation System. Tracing the history of both the Group and the mission concept, it explains the political and organizational failures that took place. It shows that these failures were linked to different approaches to international cooperation in Earth observation data policy. The main points of contention existed between Working Group members, NASA and ESA. NASA favored formal and binding legal arrangements, while ESA preferred to avoid institutionalized legal commitments. Success in coordinating and harmonizing data policy on a multilateral basis for Earth observation missions is more likely to be achieved by pursuing agreement on general principles and terms of reference than by seeking specific legal agreements.     

An international symbol for the sustained exploration of space

As humanity prepares to extend its reach beyond low-Earth-orbit for the first time since the 1970s, a new symbol of international cooperation is needed to further promote the message of peace and collaboration such exploration entails. The space race that occurred between the USSR and the USA is an ill-suited model for long-term sustained space exploration because it is too costly and too resource-intensive for a single nation to bear. While competition is healthy for technology development, the success of a sustained space exploration strategy lies beyond technological capabilities. It lies in international cooperation, space policy, and public support. Without these, no program can realistically achieve a sustained presence in space beyond low-Earth orbit. To this effect, this paper proposes a cost-effective first step in the form of a universal symbol which, when placed alongside national flags displayed on hardware and astronaut/cosmonaut/taikonaut flight-suits, would send a strong message to the world that space exploration is done for the benefit of humanity as a whole, not just for spacefaring nations. The “Blue Marble”, the first complete picture of Earth taken from space by humans in 1972, fits this universally appealing symbol. This symbol requires no political collaboration between countries, yet is an image that anyone, anywhere in the world, can relate to regardless of nationality, ethnic origin or religious beliefs. Placed on the shoulder pads of human ’nauts – ambassadors of planet Earth – or prominently displayed on spacebound hardware, this symbol would send a universal message to present and future generations that, in space, our planet is working together for the benefit of everyone.     

Improving the effectiveness of international collaboration in space science

From the start of the 20th century, a strong tradition of collaboration has developed in the physical sciences. World War II and the following period changed this situation with a quickening of the pace of application. Thus, while basic research continues to benefit from collaboration among scientists worldwide, the increasingly complex background in which science evolves, through higher implementation costs and more difficult approval processes, renders collaboration among nations ever more pressing. Space science, with its comparatively high access cost but large fundamental importance, substantial public appeal and outstanding ability to motivate young people, shares this need. This article focuses on a recent ESSC-ESF study undertaken to improve the effectiveness of such cooperative efforts. Related findings and recommendations are presented along with a proposed operational structure for their implementation.     

Technology assessment in space activities: status and outlook

Space technology is not only a matter for engineers. In various ways, political authorities and other sections of society are interested in space activities. An of space activities provides a scientific basis on which to tender guidance and advice to decision makers. The authors discuss the growing use of technology assessment in the space field with particular reference to German activities and analyse why it will become more important in the future.     

The changing face of the European space sector: the policies of Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom

The current international economic and technical climate has caused changes in the European space sector such that Italy is now struggling to maintain third place in the European hierarchy, the Franco-German relationship has become less dominant, while the UK is becoming more open towards European cooperation. This article analyses the current policies of Germany, the UK and Italy and examines their operating methods. The author speculates on the outlook for these countries in the next 10 years: neither the UK, nor Italy looks set to become a major player and German policy will depend on the success of its upcoming strategic plan. All these countries, and France, however, will need to engage in intensive bilateral consultations if they wish to compete in worldwide markets.     

OLTARIS: On-line tool for the assessment of radiation in space

OLTARIS (On-Line Tool for the Assessment of Radiation In Space) is a space radiation analysis tool available on the World Wide Web. It can be used to study the effects of space radiation for various spacecraft and mission scenarios involving humans and electronics. The transport is based on the HZETRN transport code and the input nuclear physics model is NUCFRG. This paper describes the tools behind the web interface and the types of inputs required to obtain results. Typical inputs are mission parameters and slab definitions or vehicle thickness distributions. Radiation environments can be chosen by the user. This paper describes these inputs as well as the output response functions including dose, dose equivalent, whole body effective dose equivalent, LET spectra and detector response models.     

Japanese space policy during the 1980s: A balance between autonomy and international cooperation

In the mid-1980s, Japan decided not only to invest in a totally domestic rocket, “H-II,” to acquire its independent access to space, but also to participate in the U.S. Space Station program to promote international space cooperation. Not until then did Japan try to achieve simultaneously both autonomy and international cooperation. This paper reexamines how Japan achieved a balance between autonomy and international cooperation in its space activities during the 1980s, from the perspective of Japan–U.S. diplomatic history. Against the background of the Japan–U.S. relations of those days, the similarities and differences between the two big space programs made it possible for Japan to decide them at the same time of the mid-1980s.     

Initial characterization of the microgravity environment of the international space station: increments 2 through 4

The primary objective of the International Space Station (ISS) is to provide a long-term quiescent environment for the conduct of scientific research for a variety of microgravity science disciplines. This paper reports to the microgravity scientific community the results of an initial characterization of the microgravity environment on the International Space Station for increments 2 through 4. During that period almost 70,000 hours of station operations and scientific experiments were conducted. 720 hours of crew research time were logged aboard the orbiting laboratory and over half a terabyte of acceleration data were recorded and much of that was analyzed. The results discussed in this paper cover both the quasi-steady and vibratory acceleration environment of the station during its first year of scientific operation. For the quasi-steady environment, results are presented and discussed for the following: the space station attitudes Torque Equilibrium Attitude and the X-Axis Perpendicular to the Orbital Plane; station docking attitude maneuvers; Space Shuttle joint operation with the station; cabin de-pressurizations and the station water dumps. For the vibratory environment, results are presented for the following: crew exercise, docking events, and the activation/de-activation of both station life support system hardware and experiment hardware. Finally, a grand summary of all the data collected aboard the station during the 1-year period is presented showing where the overall quasi-steady and vibratory acceleration magnitude levels fall over that period of time using a 95th percentile benchmark.     

Study of values and interpersonal perception in cosmonauts on board of international space station

The increased heterogeneity of International Space Station (ISS) crews′ composition (in terms of nationality, profession and gender) together with stressful situations, due to space flight, can have a significant impact on group interaction and cohesion, as well as on communications with Mission Control Center (MCC) and the success of the mission as a whole. Culturally related differences in values, goals, and behavioral norms could influence mutual perception and, thus, cohesive group formation. The purpose of onboard “Interaction-Attitudes” experiment is to study the patterns of small group (space crew) behavior in extended space flight. Onboard studies were performed in the course of ISS Missions 19–30 with participation of twelve Russian crewmembers. Experimental schedule included 3 phases: preflight training and Baseline Data Collection; inflight activities once in two weeks; post-flight measurement. We used Personal Self-Perception and Attitudes (PSPA) software for analyzing subjects′ attitudes toward social environment (crewmembers and MCC). It is based on the semantic differential and the repertory grid technique. To study the content of interpersonal perception we used content-analysis with participation of the experts, independently attributing each construct to the 17 semantic categories, which were described in our previous study. The data obtained demonstrated that the system of values and personal attitudes in the majority of participated cosmonauts remained mostly stable under stress-factors of extended space flight. Content-analysis of the important criteria elaborated by the subjects for evaluation of their social environment, showed that the most valuable personal traits for cosmonauts were those that provided the successful fulfillment of professional activity (motivation, intellectual level, knowledge, and self-discipline) and good social relationships (sociability, friendship, and tolerance), as well. Post-flight study of changes in perceptions, related to Real Self-image, did not reveal significant differences between the images of Russian crew-members and representatives from foreign space agencies. A certain difference in perceptions was found in cosmonauts with more integrated system of evaluations: after space flight they perceived foreign participants as “closer” to their Ideal, while Russian crew-members were perceived mostly as “distant” from Ideal Self of these subjects. Perceptions of people from Earth were also more critical. These differences are likely to be manifestations of interpersonal perception stereotypes. Described patterns of changes in perceptions of cosmonauts, who have performed space flight as a part of ISS multinational crew, allow us to suggest the recommendations for development of ISS crew training, in particular, it seems useful to increase the time of joint training for deepening of intercultural interaction.     

The PROCESS experiment: exposure of amino acids in the EXPOSE-E experiment on the international space station and in laboratory simulations

To understand the chemical behavior of organic molecules in the space environment, amino acids and a dipeptide in pure form and embedded in meteorite powder were exposed in the PROCESS experiment in the EXPOSE-E facility mounted on the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform on board the International Space Station (ISS). After exposure to space conditions for 18 months, the samples were returned to Earth and analyzed in the laboratory for reactions caused by solar UV and cosmic radiation. Chemical degradation and possible racemization and oligomerization, the main reactions caused by photochemistry in the vacuum ultraviolet domain (VUV, wavelength range 100-200?nm for photon energy from 6.2 to 12.4?eV) were examined in particular. The molecules were extracted and derivatized by silylation and analyzed by gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS) to quantify the rate of the degradation of the compounds. Laboratory exposure in several wavelength ranges from UV to VUV was carried out in parallel in the Cologne Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) Center and Centre de biophysique moléculaire (CBM) laboratories. The results show that resistance to irradiation is a function of the chemical nature of the exposed molecules and the wavelengths of the UV light. The most altered compounds were the dipeptide, aspartic acid, and aminobutyric acid. The most resistant were alanine, valine, glycine, and aminoisobutyric acid. Our results also demonstrate the protective effect of meteorite powder, which reemphasizes the importance of exogenic contribution to the inventory of prebiotic organics on early Earth.     

Understanding strategic decision making in the context of international space activities

This paper argues that a better understanding of strategic decision making processes in different space agencies is relevant to the successful carrying out of international cooperative undertakings in space and that this kind of information should be taken into account when decisions are to be made on engaging in a new partnership. In this context, the paper provides a general framework for the study of strategic decision making in space organisations, with particular emphasis on the influence of culture. Additionally, it offers practical examples of how differences in policy priorities, decision making environments and practices amongst space organisations can affect international cooperative endeavours. A particular concern is with the role of national and corporate cultures in creating and reflecting differences between space agencies. In order to gather information on strategic decision making processes in the space sector, a series of 30 interviews was conducted with top decision makers from NASA, ESA and the space organisations of Brazil, France, Canada, Russia, The Netherlands and the UK.     

Project of the space test&fitting-out dock for solar-powered electric propulsion on-board international space station

A concept of a universal fitting-out module applicable for space flight test of a solar-powered electric propulsion (EP) as well as for the assembly and deployment of small spacecraft (S/C) from the international space station (ISS) is proposed.     

Damage assessment of large space structures through the variational approach

The present investigation is focused on the solution of a dynamic inverse problem which is concerned with the assessment of damage in large space structures by means of measured vibration data. This inverse problem has been presented as an optimization problem and has been solved through the use of the conjugate gradient method with the adjoint equation, also called the variational approach. When a high number of damaged elements has to be found and these elements are also severely damaged, it is shown that the use of an additional method is necessary in order to provide a better initial guess for the conjugate gradient method. A stochastic method, represented by the genetic algorithm method, has been chosen because it provides robust search in complex spaces and also reduces the chance of converging to local optima. The application of this hybrid approach showed that better results can be achieved, although the computational time for the application analyzed here could increase. The damage estimation has been evaluated using noiseless and noisy synthetic experimental data, and the reported results are concerned with a space truss structure.