2014年国外小卫星回顾

<正>2014年,全球小卫星(本文中提及的小卫星专指发射质量低于500kg的卫星)活动延续了2013年高速发展态势,年度发射总数再创新高,小卫星能力再上新台阶,小卫星应用再创新模式。同时,小卫星继续发挥航天技术创新的引领作用,国外依托小卫星开展了大量前沿技术和创新概念在轨飞行验证项目。     

国外甚小卫星发展研究

<正>近年来,全球小卫星(发射质量低于500kg)发展态势强劲,发射数量逐年大幅增长,已成为世界航天活动的主要构成部分之一。随着微光机电系统技术、微纳加工技术以及创新系统设计理念、创新系统运营模式不断发展,小卫星进一步朝着微小型化发展,在成本更低、周期更短、发射更便捷等需求驱动下,200kg以下小卫星逐渐成为发展最活跃的领域。1国外甚小卫星呈持续高涨发展态势国际上对小卫星(SmallSat)的分类主要以卫星质量为依据,一般情况下,将迷你卫星(MiniSat)、徽卫星(MicroSat)、纳卫星(NanoSat)、皮卫星(PicoSat)和飞卫星(FemoSat)统称为小卫星,即质量低于500kg的卫     

2013年国外微小卫星回顾

近年来,全球年卫星发射总数稳中有升,2013年更是实现飞跃,全年共成功发射208个航天器。小卫星数量激增是2013年卫星发射大幅增长的主要驱动力。2013年,全年共成功发射1000kg以下小卫星146颗,占年发射总量的70%。随着一体化多功能结构、空间即插即用、集成化综合电子等技术的发展和卫星设计思想的创新,卫星小型化趋势将愈发明显,小卫星能力不断提升,并成为推进概念技术重大创新和探索航天转型发展的前沿阵地。     

国外小卫星最新发展研究

进入21世纪后,随着航天技术的发展,现代小卫星逐渐呈现轻量化、小型化、低成本以及高功能密度和性价比等优势,小卫星已成为空间系统的重要组成部分。各主要航天国家为在小卫星技术领域取得领先优势,均制定了大型计划和项目。在过去十几年中,小卫星技术迅猛发展,小卫星逐渐从探索、试验阶段转入业务化、装备化运营阶段,并在遥感、通信、导航、空间科学、新技术演示验证以及教育培训等诸多领域得到了广泛应用。国外通常把质量在500kg以下的卫星定义为小卫星。考虑到我国卫星技术发展现状,目前,我国把质量在1000kg以下的卫星定义为小卫星。     

2016年全球小卫星发展回顾

2016年,全球共发射500kg以下的小卫星121颗.尽管发射数量连续第二年出现下降,但仍是各国航天计划的重要组成部分,连续4年成功发射的卫星过半为小卫星.在各个领域,既有小卫星星座加速部署,新型小卫星星座继续涌现,创新概念和技术受到广泛关注,又有应用模式的加速创新,各界继续看好小卫星市场发展.     

美国即插即用卫星的发展

即插即用是美国“作战响应空间”（ORS）计划下提出的航天器设计研制概念,主要针对降低航天器研制成本、缩短研制周期越来越旺盛的需求。经过数年的研究,美国军方已经取得了显著进展,找到了实现航天器即插即用的解决方案,建立相关标准,并完成了演示验证卫星的研制。这一系列进展向全球展示了即插即用航天器的广阔前景与发展潜力,将对全球航天技术的发展产生变革性影响。
　　1即插即用卫星的意义
　　长期以来,美国的空间体系的建设重点都是大型空间系统。这些系统具备先进技术能力,但往往动辄数十亿美元、耗时数年才能完成,成为困扰美国军方空间项目采办的突出问题。与此同时,全球部署的美军作战部队对空间系统能力支持需求快速增长,特别是面向特定用户、特定应用的战术需求快速增长,不但需要“量身定制”的空间能力、还对项目采办周期、成本等方面提出新的要求。为此,美国提出“作战响应空间”计划,重点发展具备快速响应、降低成本、面向战术特点的小卫星,成为大型空间系统的有效补充和增强。     

小卫星蓬勃发展为当前航天管理体系带来挑战

1 国外小卫星蓬勃发展,其地位和作用将发生重大转变 进入21世纪,随着微电子、微机电和微光机电系统、新材料、先进制造、纳米技术等群体性高新技术的发展和突破,在基于一体化结构、即插即用、模块化等创新设计理念的牵引下,国外小卫星技术突飞猛进,芯片卫星、手机卫星、立方体卫星、母子卫星、分离模块航天器等概念层出不穷.小卫星发射数量持续增长,尤其在近两年呈爆炸性增长.2012、2013、2014和2015年全球分别发射小卫星49颗、138颗、162颗和149颗,分别占当年发射卫星总数的35%、64%、62%和58%.与20世纪相比,当前小卫星在功能密度、设计寿命、自主生存能力上均大幅提升,除了在技术验证、科学实验以及工程教育等传统领域进一步发挥作用之外,还开始在对地观测与通信领域实现业务运行.     

欧洲发射星上自主项目-2卫星

“星上自主项目”（PROBA）卫星系列属于欧洲航天局（ESA）的技术验证计划,资金来自通用支持技术计划（GSTP）。该系列卫星是小型、低成本卫星,用于验证新的航天器技术、研究技术、研发方法,同时还可携带科学有效载荷。     

NASA的小卫星计划

“刘易斯”（Ｌｅｗｉｓ）和“克拉克”（Ｃｌａｒｋ）是ＮＡＳＡ制订的名为“小卫星技术发展计划”（简称小卫星计划）首批卫星中的两颗小卫星的名称，这两颗小卫星属于新型低成本用先进卫星，ＮＡＳＡ研制这两颗小卫星的目的是为了探索发展美国商用卫星新技术。１９９４年９月８日，ＮＡＳＡ与ＴＲＷ公司和ＣＴＡ公司签订了这两颗小卫星的研制合同。ＴＲＷ公司承包的Ｌｅｗｉｓ小卫星合同价值５９００万美元，ＣＴＡ公司承包的Ｃｌａｒｋ卫星合同价值４９００万美元，两颗小卫星均将用于验证商用小卫星的新技术和遥感科学。Ｌｅｗｉｓ和Ｃ…     

“国家极轨业务环境卫星系统预备项目”卫星成功之轨

2011年10月28日,德尔他一2运载火箭从范登堡空军基地成功发射了“国家极轨业务环境卫星系统预备项目”（NPP）卫星。NPP卫星是美国地球观测系统（EOS）计划中的一项,也用于完成美国“国家极轨业务环境卫星系统”（NPOESS）的技术验证任务,为长期的气候研究和实时的气象预报提供数据支撑。 1 项目背景及意义 由美国航空航天局（NASA）、NPOESS综合项目办公室（IPO）以及美国国家海洋和大气管理局（NOAA）于1998年共同启动了NPP任务,NPP卫星本是NPOESS的技术验证星,主要目的是降低NPOESS的风险,并对其重要有效载荷进行飞行验证。     

2005年全球反恐特警队赛记

2005年3月30日到4月2日为期4天，在美国拉斯维加斯举行的全球特警挑战赛（Original World SWAT Challenge,OWSC）中，总计有18支队伍参赛。[编者按]     

Indirect search for Dark Matter with H.E.S.S.

Observations of the Galactic center region with the H.E.S.S. telescopes have established the existence of a steady, extended source of gamma-ray emission coinciding with the position of the super massive black hole Sgr A^*. This is a remarkable finding given the expected presence of dense self-annihilating Dark Matter in the Galactic center region. The self-annihilation process is giving rise to gamma-ray production through hadronization including the production of neutral pions which decay into gamma-rays but also through (loop-suppressed) annihilation into final states of almost mono-energetic photons. We study the observed gamma-ray signal (spectrum and shape) from the Galactic center in the context of Dark Matter annihilation and indicate the prospects for further indirect Dark Matter searches with H.E.S.S.     

The Comet Halley flyby I.R. sounder “I.K.S.”

An infrared sounder is being developed in France to observe in 1986 Comet Halley from the Soviet “VEGA” flyby probes. The instrument, called “I.K.S.”, has three measuring channels. Two of these channels will provide the spectrum of the comet emission in the spectral intervals 2.5–5.0 μ and 6–12 μ, at a constant resolution λ/Δλ = 50.The third channel analyzes the comet I.R. image at a spatial frequency of about 1 arc minute^?1; two I.R. colours are used in this channel: 7–10 μ and 10–14 μ. From the results expected, it is hoped that (1) most primary simple molecules emitted by the nucleus will be identified; (2) the chemical composition and perhaps crystalline structure of the dust grains and ices released by the comet will be derived; and (3) the diameter of the nucleus and its brightness temperatures will be measured.     

Mechanisms underlying cellular radiosensitivity and R.B.E.: introductory remarks.

A general outline of the symposium titled "Mechanisms underlying cellular radiosensitivity and R.B.E." will be given in the introduction. The essential topics of molecular radiation biology are described with respect to the damage, repair and mutagenesis caused by high-LET irradiation to cellular DNA. The importance of clustered DNA lesions (locally multiply damaged sites) formed in vivo is discussed. This symposium is devoted to the mechanisms of the biological effects of radiation with high LET, especially with regard to the effects of heavy ions and neutrons which may cause possible risks in space flight, (e.g. carcinogenesis and mutagenesis). Detailed understanding of these risks, however, demands knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in the biological effects of high-LET radiations. Thus, it was the organizers' idea to hold a symposium dealing with primary physical and chemical events caused in cellular deoxyribonucleoproteins by densely-ionizing radiations and to relate them to track structures and energy transfer processes. The mechanisms of DNA damage were regarded from different points of view including those considering DNA repair and mutagenesis. Problems associated with cell survival and radiation protection were discussed as well. Our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of high-LET radiation actions, however, is limited compared to what we know about low-LET radiation effects (e.g. from gamma-rays or X-rays). To emphasize this statement, I would like to summarize briefly the open questions in molecular radiation biology, what we know already about low-LET effects and what is lacking describing the effect of high-LET radiation.     

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule: behaviour of an artificial aquatic ecological system during spaceflight.

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule, a closed aquatic ecosystem integrated into a middeck locker and consisting of a Zoological (animal tanks), a Botanical (plant bioreactor), a Microbial (bacteria filter) and an Electronic Component (data acquisition/control system) was flown on the STS-89 spaceshuttle mission in January 1998 for 9 days. Preflight the plant bioreactor was loaded with 53 g of Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail) and the animal tanks with 4 adult pregnant females of the fish, Xiphophorus helleri (sword-tails), 200 juveniles of the same species less than 1 week of age, 38 large and 30 juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata water snails. The filter compartment was filled with 200 g of lava grain inoculated with laboratory strains of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. A ground reference was undertaken with the same biological setup with a delay of 4 d. After an adaptation period of 5 d the system was closed and integrated into the spaceshuttle one day before launch. Video recordings of the animals were automatically taken for 10 minutes in 2-hour periods; the tapes were changed daily by the astronauts. The chemical and physical data for the aquatic system were within the expected range and were closely comparable in comparison to the ground reference. After 9 d under space conditions, the plant biomass increased to 117 g. The plants were all found in very good condition. All 4 adult female fish were retrieved in a good physiological condition. The juvenile fishes had a survival rate of about 33%. Almost 97% of the snails had survived and produced more than 250 neonates and 40 spawning packs. All samples were distributed according to a defined schedule and satisfied all scientific needs of the involved 12 principal investigators. This was the first successful spaceflight of an artificial aquatic ecosystem containing vertebrates, invertebrates, higher plants and microorganisms self-sustained by its inhabitants only. C.E.B.A.S. in a modified form and biological setup is a promising candidate for the early space station utilization as a first midterm experiment.     

The "C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE": a self-sustaining closed aquatic ecosystem for spaceflight experimentation.

The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is the miniaturized space flight version of the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.). It fits into a large middeck locker tray and is scheduled to be flown in the STS 85 and in the NEUROLAB missions. Its volume is about 9 liters and it consists of two animal tanks, a plant cultivator, and a bacteria filter in a monolithic design. An external sensor unit is connected to a data acquisition/control unit. The system integrates its own biological life support. The CO2 exhaled by the consumers (fishes, snails, microorganisms) is assimilated by water plants (Ceratophyllum demersum) which provide them with oxygen. The products of biomass degradation and excretion (mainly ammonia ions) are converted by bacteria into nitrite and nitrate. The latter is taken up by the plants as a nitrogen source together with other ions like phosphate. The plants convert light energy into chemical energy and their illumination is regulated via the oxygen concentration in the water by the control unit. In ground laboratory tests the system exhibited biological stability up to three month. The buffer capacity of the biological filter system is high enough to eliminate the degradation products of about one half of the dead animal biomass as shown in a "crash test". A test series using the laboratory model of the flight hardware demonstrated the biological stability and technical reliability with mission-identical loading and test duration. A comprehensive biological research program is established for the C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE in which five German and three U.S.-American universities as well as the Russian Academy of Sciences are involved.     

C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE: test results of an artificial (man-made) aquatic ecosystem.

The original Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is a long-term multi-generation research facility for experiments with aquatic animals and plants in a space station the development of which is surrounded by a large international scientific program. In addition, a miniaturized laboratory prototype, the C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE, with a total volume of about 10-12 liters for a Spacelab middeck locker was developed and a first version was tested successfully for two weeks with a population of fishes (Xiphophorus helleri) in the animal tank and a Ceratophyllum spec. in the illuminated higher plant growth chamber. The water recycling system consisted of a bacteria filter and a mechanical filter and the silastic tubing gas exchanger was separated by valves for the utilization in emergency cases only. Data were collected with the acquisition module of the original C.E.B.A.S. process control system. In addition, an optimized version was tested for 7 weeks with fishes and plants and thereafter with fish and with plants only for 2 and 1 weeks, resp.. The paper presents the relevant water parameters (e.g., pH, pressure, temperature, oxygen saturation, flow rate, ion concentrations) during the test period as well as morphological and physiological data of the enclosed animals and plants. On the basis of the given results the possible role of the C.E.B.A.S. system as a scientific tool in artificial ecosystem research and for the development of a combined animal-plant intensive aquaculture system and its utilization in bioregenerative life support is discussed.     

Aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems: developmental aspects based on the space flight results of the C.E.B.A.S. MIN-MODULE.

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is an artificial aquatic ecosystem which contains teleost fishes, water snails, ammonia oxidizing bacteria and edible non-gravitropic water plants. It serves as a model for aquatic food production modules which are not seriously affected by microgravity and other space conditions. Its space flight version, the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE was already successfully tested in the STS-89 and STS-90 (NEUROLAB) missions. It will be flown a third time in space with the STS-107 mission in January 2003. All results obtained so far in space indicate that the basic concept of the system is more than suitable to drive forward its development. The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is located within a middeck locker with limited space for additional components. These technical limitations allow only some modifications which lead to a maximum experiment time span of 120 days which is not long enough for scientifically essential multi-generation-experiments. The first necessary step is the development of "harvesting devices" for the different organisms. In the limited space of the plant bioreactor a high biomass production leads to self-shadowing effects which results in an uncontrolled degradation and increased oxygen consumption by microorganisms which will endanger the fishes and snails. It was shown already that the latter reproduce excellently in space and that the reproductive functions of the fish species are not affected. Although the parent-offspring-cannibalism of the ovoviviparous fish species (Xiphophorus helleri) serves as a regulating factor in population dynamics an uncontrolled snail reproduction will also induce an increased oxygen consumption per se and a high ammonia concentration in the water. If harvesting locks can be handled by astronauts in, e. g., 4-week intervals their construction is not very difficult and basic technical solutions are already developed. The second problem is the feeding of the animals. Although C.E.B.A.S.-based aquaculture modules are designed to be closed food loop systems (edible herbivorous fish species and edible water plants) which are already verified on Earth this will not be possible in space without devices in which the animals are fed from a food storage. This has to be done at least once daily which would waste too much crew time when done by astronauts. So, the development of a reliable automated food dispenser has highest priority. Also in this case basic technical solutions are already elaborated. The paper gives a comprehensive overview of the proposed further C.E.B.A.S.-based development of longer-term duration aquatic food production modules.     

V.L.A. observations of flare build-up in coronal loops

Very Large Array (V.L.A.) measurements at 20 cm wavelength map emission from coronal loops with second-of-arc angular resolution at time intervals as short as 3.3 seconds. The total intensity of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution and structure of the hot plasma that is detected by satellite X-ray observations of coronal loops. The circular polarization of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution, strength and structure of the coronal magnetic field. Preburst heating and magnetic changes that precede burst emission on time scales of between 1 and 30 minutes are discussed. Simultaneous 20 cm and soft X-ray observations indicate an electron temperature $\text{T}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{2.5 × 10}{}^7\text{K}$ and electron density $\text{N}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{10}{}^{10}\text{cm}{}^{\mathrm{?3}}$ during preburst heating in a coronal loop that was also associated with twisting of the entire loop in space. We also discuss the successive triggering of bursts from adjacent coronal loops; highly polarized emission from the legs of loops with large intensity changes over a 32 MHz change in observing frequency; and apparent motions of hot plasma within coronal loops at velocities V > 2,000 kilometerspersecond.     

U.V. astronomy with balloons

Balloon platforms are becoming more and more reliable as carriers of infrared and UV equipment. The balloon environment offers conditions of lower emissivity and higher transparency of the atmosphere. Precise photometric and spectroscopic measurements can be made in all spectral interval exceeding 1950 Å. Stabilized and unexpensive gondola are now available. Thus, high and low resolution spectra can be obtained for numerous stars. Accurate UV-multiband photometry and spectrophotometry are possible for stars members of large galactic clusters. A stabilized astronomical gondola was carrying a Schmidt photographic camera with UV microchannel plate image converter-intensifier. Systematic surveys of the galactic plane and the galactic poles are in progress. The quality of the UV image is good enough to allow a fine morphological analysis of the large galaxies, to detect a large number of nuclei of galaxies and nebulosities.