Influence of lunar regolith compressibility on sampling performance of thick wall spiral drills

A 2 m class robotic drill was sent to the Moon and successfully collected and returned regolith samples in late 2020 by China. It was a typical thick wall spiral drill (TWSD) with a hollow auger containing a complex coring system to retain subsurface regolith samples. Before the robotic drill was launched, a series of laboratory tests were carried out to investigate and predict the possible drilling loads it may encounter in the lunar environment. This work presents how the sampling performance of the TWSD is affected by the regolith compressibility. Experiments and analysis during the drilling and sampling process in a simulated lunar regolith environment were conducted. The compressibility of a typical lunar regolith simulant (LRS) was measured through uni-directional compression tests to study the relationship between its inner regolith stress and bulk density. A theoretical model was established to elucidate the cutting discharge behavior by auger flights based on the aforementioned relationship. Experiments were conducted with the LRS, and the results show that the sampling performance is greatly affected by the flux of the drilled cuttings into the spiral flight channels. This work helped in scheduling reasonable drilling parameters to promote the sampling performance of the robotic drill in the Chinese Chang'E 5 mission.     

Analysis of Chang’e-5 lunar core drilling process

Chang’e-5 explorer successfully acquired lunar regolith core samples from depths of greater than 1 m of lunar surface. This study analyzed the lunar core drilling process based on the telemetry data, image information, and returned samples to optimize the sampling device design and enhance the understanding of the lunar regolith. In particular, a prediction method for the projected drilling path and local terrain fitting of drilling dip angle was proposed based on the flight events recorded during the core drilling process and the image information acquired before, during, and after sampling. The results revealed that the drilling dip angle of Chang’e-5 was approximately 2.3°, and the deviation of the drilling length and depth was less than 2 mm. For continuous drilling, a fusion method based on telemetry data and image information was applied to determine the demarcation point of drilling with and without the lunar soil. The position of the demarcation point implied that the drilling point remained at approximately 6 mm loose soil, thereby lagging the action of the force response. Additionally, a characteristic parameter comparison method was proposed for the lunar and ground drilling to analyze the status of the lunar soil. Furthermore, the analysis results revealed that the majority of the Chang’e-5 drilling samples were derived from 0–73.8 cm below the lunar surface and few samples were extracted below 73.8 cm, as the drilling encountered several rocky regions. Moreover, the drilling point exhibited two prominent stratification variations at ～28.7 cm and ～70 cm below the lunar surface. Ultimately, the preliminary relationship between sample dissected position in soft tube and drilling displacement was analyzed. The segmented estimation results can support research on subsurface lunar soil.     

Drilling load modeling and validation based on the filling rate of auger flute in planetary sampling

Some type of penetration into a subsurface is required in planetary sampling. Drilling and coring, due to its efficient penetrating and cuttings removal characteristics, has been widely applied in previous sampling missions. Given the complicated mechanical properties of a planetary regolith, suitable drilling parameters should be matched with different drilling formations properly. Otherwise, drilling faults caused by overloads could easily happen. Hence, it is necessary to estab-lish a drilling load model, which is able to reveal the relationships among drilling loads, an auger's structural parameters, soil's mechanical properties, and relevant drilling parameters. A concept for the filling rate of auger flute (FRAF) is proposed to describe drilling conditions. If the FRAF index under one group of drilling parameters is less than 1, this means that the auger flute currently removes cuttings smoothly. Otherwise, the auger will be choked with compressed cuttings. In dril-ling operations, the drilling loads on the auger mainly come from the conveyance action, while the drilling loads on the drill bit primarily come from the cutting action. Experiments in one typical lunar regolith simulant indicate that the estimated drilling loads based on the FRAF coincide with the test results quite well. Based on this drilling load model, drilling parameters have been opti-mized.     

Synthesis and characterization of geopolymer from lunar regolith simulant based on natural volcanic scoria

In this study, a new GVS（Ground Volcanic Scoria） lunar regolith simulant was produced. The similarity between GVS and lunar soil was proved by comparison with Apollo lunar soil samples and other commercial lunar soil simulants. Then, GVS lunar regolith simulant was investigated as the source material for preparing geopolymer to produce building material for lunar colony construction. To study the possibility of preparing geopolymer from GVS lunar regolith simulant and the optimum activator formu...     

Multi-state autonomous drilling for lunar exploration

Due to the lack of information of subsurface lunar regolith stratification which varies along depth, the drilling device may encounter lunar soil and lunar rock randomly in the drilling process. To meet the load safety requirements of unmanned sampling mission under limited orbital resources, the control strategy of autonomous drilling should adapt to the indeterminable lunar environments. Based on the analysis of two types of typical drilling media (i.e., lunar soil and lunar rock), this paper proposes a multi-state control strategy for autonomous lunar drilling. To represent the working circumstances in the lunar subsurface and reduce the complexity of the control algo-rithm, lunar drilling process was categorized into three drilling states:the interface detection, initi-ation of drilling parameters for recognition and drilling medium recognition. Support vector machine (SVM) and continuous wavelet transform were employed for the online recognition of dril-ling media and interface, respectively. Finite state machine was utilized to control the transition among different drilling states. To verify the effectiveness of the multi-state control strategy, drilling experiments were implemented with multi-layered drilling media constructed by lunar soil simulant and lunar rock simulant. The results reveal that the multi-state control method is capable of detect-ing drilling state variation and adjusting drilling parameters timely under vibration interferences. The multi-state control method provides a feasible reference for the control of extraterrestrial autonomous drilling.     

月球钻取采样机构的钻杆结构与运动参数分析

针对月球钻取式自动采样机构空心外螺旋钻杆取样过程,分别建立了月壤内聚力和月壤内摩擦系数随月壤深度变化的数学模型,建立了钻进过程中钻杆运动参数(钻进速度和钻杆转速)与钻杆结构参数(钻杆螺旋升角、外径、槽宽比和螺旋槽深等)之间的关系。建模过程考虑了月壤物理和机械特性随钻进深度变化特性、钻杆钻进牵连速度及月壤微元相互间的抗剪性,使得钻杆参数符合月球钻取采样的实际工况。对模型进行了验证,利用该模型开展了钻杆结构参数对运动参数的影响分析,给出了钻杆结构参数对钻杆运动参数的影响规律,获得了钻杆结构参数的最佳取值范围。以钻杆转速与钻进速度比最小为优化目标,以结构参数为设计变量,基于遗传算法对钻杆结构参数进行了优化,优化后的钻杆转速与转进速度比降低了13.8%。该优化结果降低了系统能耗,提高了钻取采样输月壤效率,可为钻取式自动采样机构的设计提供理论依据。     

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Overview: The Instrument Suite and Mission

NASA’s Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP), formulated in response to the President’s Vision for Space Exploration, will execute a series of robotic missions that will pave the way for eventual permanent human presence on the Moon. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is first in this series of LPRP missions, and plans to launch in October of 2008 for at least one year of operation. LRO will employ six individual instruments to produce accurate maps and high-resolution images of future landing sites, to assess potential lunar resources, and to characterize the radiation environment. LRO will also test the feasibility of one advanced technology demonstration package. The LRO payload includes: Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) which will determine the global topography of the lunar surface at high resolution, measure landing site slopes, surface roughness, and search for possible polar surface ice in shadowed regions, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) which will acquire targeted narrow angle images of the lunar surface capable of resolving meter-scale features to support landing site selection, as well as wide-angle images to characterize polar illumination conditions and to identify potential resources, Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) which will map the flux of neutrons from the lunar surface to search for evidence of water ice, and will provide space radiation environment measurements that may be useful for future human exploration, Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE) which will chart the temperature of the entire lunar surface at approximately 300 meter horizontal resolution to identify cold-traps and potential ice deposits, Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) which will map the entire lunar surface in the far ultraviolet. LAMP will search for surface ice and frost in the polar regions and provide images of permanently shadowed regions illuminated only by starlight. Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER), which will investigate the effect of galactic cosmic rays on tissue-equivalent plastics as a constraint on models of biological response to background space radiation. The technology demonstration is an advanced radar (mini-RF) that will demonstrate X- and S-band radar imaging and interferometry using light weight synthetic aperture radar. This paper will give an introduction to each of these instruments and an overview of their objectives.     

Ground-based investigations on phase-moving phenomenon with space sublimation cooling for lunar exploration missions

The lunar surface is a typical vacuum environment, and its harsh heat rejection conditions bring great challenges to the thermal control technology of the exploration mission. In addition to the radiator, the sublimator is recommended as one of the promising options for heat rejection. The sublimator makes use of water to freeze and sublimate in a porous medium, rejecting heat to the vacuum environment. The complex heat and mass transfer process involves many physical phenomena such as the freezing and sublimation phase change of water in the porous medium and the movement of the phase-change interface. In this paper, the visualized ground-based experimental approaches of space sublimation cooling were presented to reveal the moving law of three-phase point and the growth phenomenon of ice-peak and icicle in microchannels under vacuum conditions. The visualized experiments and results prove that the freezing ice is divided into the porous ice-peak and the transparent icicle. As the sublimation progresses, the phase-change interface moves downward steadily, the length of the ice-peak increases, but the icicle decreases. The visualized experiments of space sublimation cooling in the capillary have guiding significance to reveal the sublimation cooling mechanism of water in the sublimator for lunar exploration missions.     

月球探测卫星的轨道支持

主要讨论采用月球卫星的探测方式时，月球探测器对测控系统的轨道支持要求和实现手段。重点对月球卫星转移轨道段的轨道测量和确定方法进行研究，利用仿真的地面站的测距和测角资料进行了定轨误差分析。     

Lunar photography: Techniques and results

Conclusion The lunar photography missions have included flyby, impacter, lander, and orbiter spacecrafts. These missions have provided photographs of the far side of the moon and a ten-fold increase in frontside resolution plus higher resolution of selected frontside areas. The resolutions which have been achieved vary from 1 m for the Lunar Orbiter to 1/2 m for the impacting Ranger to millimeters for Luna-IX and the Surveyors. The return from these missions have resolved much of the mystery surrounding the moon.The prime objective of the U.S. photographic missions has been the support of the Apollo-manned lunar landing program. The Ranger program, the Surveyor program, and the Lunar Orbiter program provided a logical progression in the utilization of a developing space exploration technology. These programs have provided the required information and have confirmed that the Apollo landing vehicle design is compatible with the conditions to be experienced on selected areas of the lunar surface.The future manned landing missions can be expected to provide additional lunar photography. Since the astronauts can be more selective in their photography, even more outstanding and informative results should be achieved. The addition of movies and even live television coverage will permit earth-based man to share more directly in the manned exploration of the moon.The unmanned photographic exploration of the moon has provided much of the technology required for similar missions to the planets. The U.S. Mariner-IV was the first successful mission to obtain close-up photographs of the planet Mars. It can be expected that both the U.S.A. and Russia will try for further photographic successes in the exploration of our solar system.This paper presents the results of one phase of research carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under Contract No. NAS 7-100, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.     

月球风化层钻取采样过程密实度分类研究

钻取采样是月球风化层土壤样品获取的重要方式,密实度是重要的风化层月壤原位特性,对钻进过程中的策略制定有重要影响。本文结合钻取采样过程特点,提出了通过采样机构的力、速度、电流、温度等传感器获取的瞬时信息感知月壤密实度的方法,利用深度学习方法构建一类适应于可变长度序列数据的门控型循环神经网络,实现钻进过程月壤密实度在线分类。研究表明,该分类方法在风化层钻进过程中月壤密实度感知滞后时间约为33 s,对未知序列数据识别正确率大于89.36%,具有较高的分类精度和泛化能力。     

欧美月球GNSS规划现状分析综述

月球是地球最重要的天然卫星,当前国际上正在迎来新一轮月球探索高潮,数十个机构和商业团队正在规划月球探索任务,并设想在未来实现航天员长期驻月,围绕月球的“太空竞赛”刚刚开始。月球GNSS（基于现有的地球GNSS以及新的环月卫星通信导航基础设施的月球卫星通信导航定位技术）是空间基准科研的基础,能够提供航天器着陆定位以及月面（及其覆盖空间）定位、导航与授时等服务,同时可以将月球作为试验场,将导航工具包扩展到更远的目的地（如火星）。对欧美近期发布的月球GNSS规划进行了整理归纳,其中包括美国月球GNSS接收机实验（LuGRE）计划和欧洲月光（MoonLight）计划,以及美国中远期月球通信中继和导航系统（LCRNS）计划,这些计划可以为我国开展月球GNSS规划提供参考。     

月球与深空探测频率规划研究

介绍国际电（ITU）和空间频率协调组（SFGC）关于月球与深空探测频率使用的一些规定和建议,研究国外月球与深空探测频率使用规划和发展趋势,探讨我国月球与深空探测频率使用需求,提出我国月球与深空探测频率建议和发展方向。     

载人火星探测进展及其EDL过程GNC关键技术

随着火星探测技术的不断发展和探测任务的不断推进，载人火星探测在未来将会成为火星探测的重要手段。首先，回顾了无人火星探测任务的发展历程，对比分析了部分无人火星探测器进入、下降与着陆（EDL）过程的参数。然后，结合无人火星探测、载人月球探测和载人航天再入过程，梳理了载人火星探测的特点及需求，系统地总结了前苏联/俄罗斯和美国的载人火星探测研究进展以及技术储备。接着，归纳了载人火星探测的体系构成、集结方式和主要的技术挑战。最后，概括了载人火星EDL过程面临的难题，重点阐述了EDL的导航、制导与控制（GNC）关键技术。     

嫦娥探测器分段渐倾转移机构设计

巡视探测器转移机构是在地外空间环境执行巡视探测器转移释放任务的空间机构。与美国、苏联转移任务不同,中国探月工程（CLEP）二期着陆器采用腿式着陆缓冲机构及巡视器顶部搭载方式,转移任务沿着陆器周向展开距离及巡视器释放高度增加,转移难度增大。在设计阶段,转移机构是否符合探测任务严苛的工程约束及设计指标;在执行阶段,转移机构能否在月面非确知环境下正常展开、转移过程是否稳定可靠,是嫦娥探测器顺利完成探测任务的关键。为保障月球后续任务及火星探测任务中转移机构的设计需要,根据巡视器转移系统特点,以探月二期工程中首次探索并成功自主设计定型的嫦娥分段渐倾转移机构为例,对巡视器转移系统的组成、任务需求及设计约束予以阐述,并结合参研人员经验,对机构研制方案的选取、关键环节设计、工程状态及任务验证情况进行说明,以为后续工作及相关工程提供参考。     

模拟月壤对蓝细菌生长特性的影响

阐明地球生物在月球环境中的适应性是未来月球探索和基地构建所面临的重要课题,为此以蓝细菌为实验材料,对其在模拟月壤cas-1中的生长状态进行了研究,从生长速率、细胞形态、细胞色素含量等方面表征了月壤对蓝细菌适应性的影响。实验结果表明,四种实验蓝细菌的生长能够适应模拟月壤的影响,其生长速率在模拟月壤处理中保持与常规培养基相似的生长曲线;模拟月壤颗粒上附着生长的菌体形态与对照相比无明显变化;模拟月壤处理后的菌体内色素含量与对照条件下培养的结果无显著差异。该结果对于未来开发月壤资源和构建月球基地受控生态生保系统具有重要意义。     

Comparative study of lunar mission requirements and onboard propulsion system performance

In recent years, the lunar explorer programs, suspended for a long time, have resumed again with the rapid development of low cost and high-level technologies. As a result, several nations have made a success of lunar exploration programs with their own orbiters. Unlike a satellite orbiting the earth, the optimal design of an onboard propulsion system of a lunar orbiter is a major issue because it is not simple to make the orbiter arrive accurately at another planet far from the earth. Hence, a close attention is required to select and develop an appropriate type of the onboard propulsion system based on given mission requirements of a lunar orbiter. To do this, this study first surveys several lunar orbiters launched since 1990 and their major mission requirements. Then, it summarizes the technical trends of the onboard propulsion systems of the recent lunar orbiters and their key design and performance specifications through trade-off studies. By comparing these features, the present study investigates which lunar mission requirements are critically important, and how they can effect on the overall performance of an onboard propulsion system. Based on these investigations the major objective of the present study intends ultimately to set up a fundamental baseline in selecting and developing an appropriate type of onboard propulsion system of a lunar orbiter.     

一种跳跃式返回再入的预测—校正制导方法

再入地球大气是探月飞船返回的关键阶段,再入制导是返回再入中的难点问题.飞船跳跃式再入过程复杂,标准轨道制导方法难以满足任务要求,因此具有高精度和强鲁棒性的预测—校正制导方法成为解决问题的首选.以探月飞船跳跃式再入为背景,设计了数值预测—校正制导律,研究了基于嵌套式积分算法的航程快速预报方法和基于有界试位法的倾侧角剖面快速更新算法,提出了一种气动系数误差和大气密度误差的在线参数辨识方法,并基于最大偏差法和蒙特卡洛打靶法进行了仿真分析.结果表明,预测—校正再入制导方法在跳跃式再入问题上具有较高的精度和较好的鲁棒性.5 000 km再入航程时,开伞点误差在2.5 km以内.     

新一代载人月面着陆器发展趋势研究

月面着陆器是实现载人探月任务的重要组成部分,从任务规划和着陆器参数两个方面对早期美国阿波罗计划中的月面着陆器（ LM）、苏联N1-L3登月计划中的月面着陆器（ L3登月系统）以及最近美国星座计划中的月面着陆器（ Altair）的相关情况进行了分析,并从任务需求、月面环境和研究经费及基础设施方面对LM与Altair月面着陆器进行详细比较,通过比较分析总结出新一代载人月面着陆器将沿着提高乘员运送能力、扩大到达范围、延长航天员生活时间及功能模块化的方向发展,并提出研制新一代月面着陆器应着重解决着陆器推进、结构、着陆障碍检测及缓冲以及月尘防护等关键技术。     

Planetary Micro-Penetrator Concept Study with Biomimetric Drill and Sampler Design

Due to ultraviolet flux to the surface layers of most solar system bodies, future astrobiological research is increasingly seeking to conduct subsurface penetration, drilling and sampling to detect chemical signature of extant or extinct life. To seek a compact solution to this issue, we present a micro-penetrator concept (mass < 10 kg) that is suited for planetary deployment and in situ investigation of chemical and physical properties. To draw inspiration from nature, a biomimetic drill and sampler subsystem is designed as a penetrator instrument based on the working mechanism of a wood wasp ovipositor to sample beneath the sterile layer for biomarker detection. One of the major limitations of sampling in relatively low gravity environments (such as asteroids, Mars, etc) is the need for high axial force when using conventional drills. The ovipositor drill is proposed to address this limitation by applying a novel concept of reciprocating motion that requires no external force. It is lightweight (0.5 kg), driven at low power (3 W), and able to drill deep (1-2 m). Tests have shown that a reciprocating drill is feasible and has the potential of improving drill efficiency without receiving any external force. As part of the European space agency (ESA) project on bionics and space system design [1], this study provides a conceptual design of the micro-penetrator targeted for a near earth asteroid mission. With bionics-enabling technology, the overall penetration/drilling/sampling system provides a small, light and energy efficient solution to in situ astrobiological studies, which is crucial for space exploration. Such a micro-penetrator can be used for exploration of terrestrial-type planets or other small bodies of the solar system with a moderate level of modifications.