Flapping and flexible wings for biological and micro air vehicles

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) with wing spans of 15 cm or less, and flight speed of 30–60 kph are of interest for military and civilian applications. There are two prominent features of MAV flight: (i) low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵), resulting in unfavorable aerodynamic conditions to support controlled flight, and (ii) small physical dimensions, resulting in certain favorable scaling characteristics including structural strength, reduced stall speed, and low inertia. Based on observations of biological flight vehicles, it appears that wing motion and flexible airfoils are two key attributes for flight at low Reynolds number. The small size of MAVs corresponds in nature to small birds, which do not glide like large birds, but instead flap with considerable change of wing shape during a single flapping cycle. With flapping and flexible wings, birds overcome the deteriorating aerodynamic performance under steady flow conditions by employing unsteady mechanisms. In this article, we review both biological and aeronautical literatures to present salient features relevant to MAVs. We first summarize scaling laws of biological and micro air vehicles involving wing span, wing loading, vehicle mass, cruising speed, flapping frequency, and power. Next we discuss kinematics of flapping wings and aerodynamic models for analyzing lift, drag and power. Then we present issues related to low Reynolds number flows and airfoil shape selection. Recent work on flexible structures capable of adjusting the airfoil shape in response to freestream variations is also discussed.     

微型飞行器相关技术研究进展

微型飞行器是航空领域一个新的研究热点，涉及多个技术研究领域。围绕与微型飞行器相关的低雷诺数空气动力学问题，进行了绕圆柱体低雷诺数非定常流动的数值模拟方法研究、低雷诺数机翼粘性非定常流动机理研究、扑翼的气动力估算方法研究、微流动控制的数值模拟研究和微型飞机的气动实验研究，指出了微型飞行器面临的问题，并展望了其发展趋势。     

微型飞行器的设计原则和策略

为了探索微型飞行器(MAV)总体设计方法,在简要介绍微型飞行器的概念与技术难点的基础上,笔者根据多年的MAV研究和试验,提出了对微型飞行器设计原则的思考,阐述了研究性和实用性MAV以及固定翼、扑翼和旋翼等不同类型MAV的设计特点。通过MAV设计的矛盾与协调关系、设计方法和优化问题说明了MAV设计的特殊性。最后,展望了微型飞行器设计的发展方向,为微型飞行器总体设计研究提供了参考思路。     

微型扑翼飞行器的气动建模分析与试验

用计算流体力学的数值模拟方法研究了微扑翼飞行器的扑翼飞行的非定常空气动力学问题。在对昆虫扑翼飞行运动的仿生模拟基础上 ,对实际可飞的微扑翼飞行器的扑翼运动建立了三维翼型的运动学与空气动力学模型。利用任意拉格朗日欧拉 ( ALE)有限元方法求解出 N-S方程的数值解 ,证明简单扑翼布局所提供的升力足以克服微扑翼飞行器本身的重力使其飞行。在此基础上 ,分别计算并分析了拍动幅值、俯仰幅度以及扑翼频率等各种扑翼参数对升力的影响。最后 ,探索性的扑翼风洞试验与飞行试验结果在一定程度上验证了文中计算方法的可行性      

Unsteady aerodynamics and flow control for flapping wing flyers

The creation of micro air vehicles (MAVs) of the same general sizes and weight as natural fliers has spawned renewed interest in flapping wing flight. With a wingspan of approximately 15 cm and a flight speed of a few meters per second, MAVs experience the same low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵) flight conditions as their biological counterparts. In this flow regime, rigid fixed wings drop dramatically in aerodynamic performance while flexible flapping wings gain efficacy and are the preferred propulsion method for small natural fliers. Researchers have long realized that steady-state aerodynamics does not properly capture the physical phenomena or forces present in flapping flight at this scale. Hence, unsteady flow mechanisms must dominate this regime. Furthermore, due to the low flight speeds, any disturbance such as gusts or wind will dramatically change the aerodynamic conditions around the MAV. In response, a suitable feedback control system and actuation technology must be developed so that the wing can maintain its aerodynamic efficiency in this extremely dynamic situation; one where the unsteady separated flow field and wing structure are tightly coupled and interact nonlinearly. For instance, birds and bats control their flexible wings with muscle tissue to successfully deal with rapid changes in the flow environment. Drawing from their example, perhaps MAVs can use lightweight actuators in conjunction with adaptive feedback control to shape the wing and achieve active flow control. This article first reviews the scaling laws and unsteady flow regime constraining both biological and man-made fliers. Then a summary of vortex dominated unsteady aerodynamics follows. Next, aeroelastic coupling and its effect on lift and thrust are discussed. Afterwards, flow control strategies found in nature and devised by man to deal with separated flows are examined. Recent work is also presented in using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators and angular speed variation to achieve active flow control for MAVs. Finally, an explanation for aerodynamic gains seen in flexible versus rigid membrane wings, derived from an unsteady three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model with an integrated distributed control algorithm, is presented.     

微型飞行器航时优化

 针对微型飞行器(MAV)低雷诺数条件下续航时间不足的问题,推导了适用于电动推进飞行器的航时计算公式,并提出为实现航时优化的动力系统规划方法。通过初步实验,验证了航时优化理论的正确性,通过规划延长了航时。     

Nonlinear dynamics of a flapping rotary wing: Modeling and optimal wing kinematic analysis

The analysis of the passive rotation feature of a micro Flapping Rotary Wing(FRW)applicable for Micro Air Vehicle(MAV) design is presented in this paper. The dynamics of the wing and its influence on aerodynamic performance of FRW is studied at low Reynolds number(~10~3).The FRW is modeled as a simplified system of three rigid bodies: a rotary base with two flapping wings. The multibody dynamic theory is employed to derive the motion equations for FRW. A quasi-steady aerodynamic model is utilized for the calculation of the aerodynamic forces and moments. The dynamic motion process and the effects of the kinematics of wings on the dynamic rotational equilibrium of FWR and the aerodynamic performances are studied. The results show that the passive rotation motion of the wings is a continuous dynamic process which converges into an equilibrium rotary velocity due to the interaction between aerodynamic thrust, drag force and wing inertia. This causes a unique dynamic time-lag phenomena of lift generation for FRW, unlike the normal flapping wing flight vehicle driven by its own motor to actively rotate its wings. The analysis also shows that in order to acquire a high positive lift generation with high power efficiency and small dynamic time-lag, a relative high mid-up stroke angle within 7–15° and low mid-down stroke angle within -40° to -35° are necessary. The results provide a quantified guidance for design option of FRW together with the optimal kinematics of motion according to flight performance requirement.     

柔性翼微型飞行器气动特性的实验研究

 柔性翼有望提高微型飞行器(MAV)的抗风能力。为进一步了解柔性翼的气动性能,建立MAV数学模型,并为飞行仿真和飞行控制设计做准备,在低雷诺数风洞中对柔性翼微型飞行器进行了风洞试验,同时采用翼型、机翼平面形状和尺寸大小均相同的刚性翼进行了风洞对比试验。对比结果表明：柔性翼相比于对应的刚性翼,失速迎角较大;柔性翼的最大升力系数较大,但是柔性翼的变形在提高升力的同时也增大了阻力,升阻比的情况较为复杂;在较低雷诺数情况下,柔性翼的纵向静稳定性略优于刚性翼;柔性翼的长周期和短周期模态的衰减特性和阻尼特性略优于刚性翼。     

微型飞行器低雷诺数矩形扑翼非定常气动特性的数值模拟

采用双时间步方法求解三维可压缩非定常N-S方程,数值模拟了微型飞行器低雷诺数矩形扑翼的非定常绕流,首先将得到的结果与文献进行了对比,数据间具有较好的一致性.然后针对不同的展弦比、减缩频率及初始攻角,计算了矩形扑翼的非定常气动特性及表面流态和动态压力分布,并分析了翼尖涡对扑翼非定常气动特性的影响.     

柔性翼微型飞行器水平阵风响应特性实验研究

设计研制了一种飞翼布局的柔性翼和刚性翼微型飞行器,并在风洞中研究了两种微型飞行器在定常风和水平阵风作用下的气动特性,给出了柔性翼和刚性翼微型飞行器气动特性的差别。研究结果表明：不论是在定常风情况下,还是在水平阵风环境下,柔性翼的气动特性要优于刚性翼结构,柔性翼具有延迟失速和缓和阵风影响的能力,有利于稳定飞行。PIV测量结果表明：由于柔性翼的变形使刚性翼和柔性翼翼面上的流态不同,从而使微型飞行器的气动特性发生改变。     

仿鸟柔性扑翼气动特性与能耗的数值研究

建立了适当的三维仿鸟柔性扑翼模型,并以配平重力和平衡阻力为条件,数值计算了它的低雷诺数非定常流场.研究揭示了翼面初始扭转角度、动态俯仰幅度等重要设计参数与飞行性能的关系,表明扑翼平面的初始扭转程度、扑翼柔性材料的选择以及两者之间的合理搭配对扑翼机的成功飞行至关重要.研究分析了仿鸟扑翼的流场涡结构、升力推力产生原理,下扑过程附着上翼面的前缘涡是升力产生的重要机制.对扑翼气动功率的比较分析也发现,人造扑翼机需要的气动功率明显高出同等大小的鸟类,在效率方面尚不及扑翼飞行生物.     

Recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity

Micro air vehicles (MAVs) have the potential to revolutionize our sensing and information gathering capabilities in areas such as environmental monitoring and homeland security. Flapping wings with suitable wing kinematics, wing shapes, and flexible structures can enhance lift as well as thrust by exploiting large-scale vortical flow structures under various conditions. However, the scaling invariance of both fluid dynamics and structural dynamics as the size changes is fundamentally difficult. The focus of this review is to assess the recent progress in flapping wing aerodynamics and aeroelasticity. It is realized that a variation of the Reynolds number (wing sizing, flapping frequency, etc.) leads to a change in the leading edge vortex (LEV) and spanwise flow structures, which impacts the aerodynamic force generation. While in classical stationary wing theory, the tip vortices (TiVs) are seen as wasted energy, in flapping flight, they can interact with the LEV to enhance lift without increasing the power requirements. Surrogate modeling techniques can assess the aerodynamic outcomes between two- and three-dimensional wing. The combined effect of the TiVs, the LEV, and jet can improve the aerodynamics of a flapping wing. Regarding aeroelasticity, chordwise flexibility in the forward flight can substantially adjust the projected area normal to the flight trajectory via shape deformation, hence redistributing thrust and lift. Spanwise flexibility in the forward flight creates shape deformation from the wing root to the wing tip resulting in varied phase shift and effective angle of attack distribution along the wing span. Numerous open issues in flapping wing aerodynamics are highlighted.     

飞翼式微型飞行器飞行动力学特性研究

微型飞行器(MAV)非线性飞行力学特性研究是MAV设计中的一个重要环节。由于MAV具有自身尺寸微小,飞行速度低等特点,其空气动力学低雷诺数效应十分明显。飞翼式MAV的非常规气动布局也使得其飞行力学特性与常规飞行器有很大差异。以低雷诺数风洞实验为基础,研究了飞翼式MAV空气动力学特性,提出了1种针对飞翼式飞行器的动阻尼导数计算方法。在飞翼式MAV飞行速度范围内将其运动方程分段线性化以研究其飞行力学特性数值规律。结果表明,飞翼式MAV各项飞行品质指标与常规飞行器存在很大差异,在整个飞行范围内其飞行动力学特性呈非线性变化规律。本文的研究对实现飞翼式MAV自主飞行控制具有重要意义。     

微型旋转翼与拍动翼气动力特性的比较

 用拟压缩性法求解三维非定常不可压N-S方程,研究了旋转翼及拍动翼的气动力和流场。当昆虫正常悬停时,如果翅膀旋转,产生的平均升力以及气动效率并不比拍动时的差,甚至还略好,因此,厘米级微型飞行器可以采用旋转翼,这比拍动模式容易实现。另外,小迎角旋转时升阻比可达3.1（在15°迎角,雷诺数4 000情况下）,气动效率较高而且升力系数不小,多个桨叶可以产生很大的升力。因此,在悬停时,多个桨叶小迎角旋转是厘米级微型飞行器的一个很好的方案。     

小型和微型无人机的气动特点和设计

讨论了当前包括固定翼、扑翼和微型旋翼的小型无人驾驶飞行器(SUAV)和微型无人驾驶飞行器(MAV)的进展和未来发展可能涉及的技术问题。讨论了低雷诺数空气动力特性,包括分离气泡和展弦比的影响。介绍了用于拍动翼的非定常空气动力特性和高升力机理。讨论了目前存在的2种设计方法——多学科/多目标优化设计和探索式/进化式的设计方法,以及在设计中柔性翼和主动智能控制的重要性。     

柔性翼微型飞行器垂直阵风响应特性的实验研究

微型飞行器因其体积小、重量轻、使用灵活、成本低,广泛应用于军民领域的侦查、通讯、搜救等领域。在制约微型飞行器发展的诸多因素中,阵风对微型飞行器的稳定、安全飞行影响很大。在南京航空航天大学非定常风洞内,研制了一套垂直阵风装置,进行了垂直阵风的流场测试。设计制作了一种柔性翼微7型飞行器,并制作了刚性翼与其对比,在国内首次进行了微型飞行器垂直阵风实验。结果表明：柔性翼能够提高微型飞行器的失速迎角,且具有更好的纵向稳定性,有一定的垂直阵风缓和能力,有利于安全、稳定飞行。     

微型扑翼飞行器的升力风洞试验

针对微型扑翼飞行器在专门的低雷诺数试验风洞中进行了扑翼的升力风洞试验, 测试出了微型扑翼飞行器在正常飞行以及向上爬升状态时的升力特性曲线, 并且探讨了扑翼频率、飞行速度以及扑翼的迎角对扑翼飞行升力的影响, 在此基础上, 还分析了扑翼升力的组成部分以及相互关系.实验结果为微型扑翼飞行器总体、气动的进一步设计提供了依据.      

超临界层流机翼边界层及气动特性分析

高空长航时无人机设计巡航状态的雷诺数较小,黏性边界层对气动特性的影响较大。详细分析了雷诺数对机翼边界层和气动力的影响,用数值方法对超临界层流机翼三维层流-转捩-湍流混合边界层特性进行了研究,分析比较了高空小雷诺数和中空大雷诺数情况下机翼三维边界层的特性,尤其是边界层转捩点位置、表面摩阻和气动特性的雷诺数效应。研究表明雷诺数对于高空无人机机翼边界层厚度、摩擦阻力和升阻比影响较大;对层流机翼的转捩点位置和升力系数影响较小;自然层流机翼技术可以应用于高空无人机设计。     

双翼布局微型飞行器气动特性试验研究

通过低速风洞试验研究了使用双翼布局改善固定翼微型飞行器（MAV）气动性能的问题。首先比较不同平面形状单翼（齐莫曼翼和反齐莫曼翼）与双翼布局的气动特性。在此基础上为了优化低雷诺数范围内的双翼布局,研究不同几何参数对气动特性的影响,包括双翼不同的翼间距和交错位置以及不同的上下翼平面形状,并分析了造成这种气动性能差异可能存在的流场相互作用机理。研究表明,双翼布局能够改善单翼微型飞行器的气动性能,双翼之间的相对几何位置对其气动特性影响很大。通过不同平面形状上翼与下翼组合的比较发现,就最大升力和升阻比而言,上翼为齐莫曼翼、下翼为反齐莫曼翼且上翼位于下翼上游的布局较优。     

微型飞行器的研究现状及其关键技术

微型飞行器(MAV)是新技术发展的必然产物，是目前国内外研究的一个前沿和热点问题。简述了目前国内外微型飞行器的发展现状，提出了发展微型飞行器亟待解决的几项关键技术问题，给出了解决这些关键技术问题的方法和途径，并对微型飞行器的发展趋势进行了展望。