Very Long Baseline Interferometry: Dependencies on Frequency Stability

Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) is a differential technique observing radiation of compact extra-galactic radio sources with pairs of radio telescopes. For these observations, the frequency standards at the telescopes need to have very high stability. In this article we discuss why this is, and we investigate exactly how precise the frequency standards need to be. Four areas where good clock performance is needed are considered: coherence, geodetic parameter estimation, correlator synchronization, and UT1 determination. We show that in order to ensure the highest accuracy of VLBI, stability similar to that of a hydrogen maser is needed for time-scales up to a few hours. In the article, we are considering both traditional VLBI where extra-galactic radio sources are observed, as well as observation of man-made artificial radio sources emitted by satellites or spacecrafts.     

The Solar Dynamo

Observations relevant to current models of the solar dynamo are presented, with emphasis on the history of solar magnetic activity and on the location and nature of the solar tachocline. The problems encountered when direct numerical simulation is used to analyse the solar cycle are discussed, and recent progress is reviewed. Mean field dynamo theory is still the basis of most theories of the solar dynamo, so a discussion of its fundamental principles and its underlying assumptions is given. The role of magnetic helicity is discussed. Some of the most popular models based on mean field theory are reviewed briefly. Dynamo models based on severe truncations of the full MHD equations are discussed.     

Organic Chemistry and Exobiology on Titan

Exobiology is not only the study of the origin, distribution and evolution of life in the universe, but also of structures — including at the molecular level, and processes — including organic chemical transformations — related to life. In that respect, with its dense nitrogen atmosphere, which includes a noticeable fraction of methane, and the many organic compounds which are present in the gas and aerosols phases, Titan appears to be a planetary object of prime interest for exobiology in the Solar system, allowing the study of chemical organic evolution in a planetary environment over a long time scale. We describe here some aspects of this extraterrestrial organic chemistry which involves many physical and chemical couplings in the different parts of what can be called ‘Titan's geofluid’ (gas phase, aerosol phases and surface solid and maybe liquid phases). The three complementary approaches which can be followed to study such chemistry of exobiological interest are considered. Those are experimental simulations in the laboratory, chemical and photochemical modeling and of course observation, using both remote sensing and in situ measurements, which is an essential approach. The Cassini-Huygens mission, that offers a unique opportunity to study in detail the many aspects of Titan's organic chemistry, is discussed and the many expected exobiological returns from the different instruments of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe are considered. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Neoplastic cell transformation by high-LET radiation: molecular mechanisms.

Experimental data on molecular mechanisms are essential for understanding the bioeffects of radiation and for developing biophysical models, which can help in determining the shape of dose-response curves at very low doses, e.g., doses less than 1 cGy. Although it has been shown that ionizing radiation can cause neoplastic cell transformation directly, that high-LET heavy ions in general can be more effective than photons in transforming cells, and that the radiogenic cell transformation is a multi-step process [correction of processes], we know very little about the molecular nature of lesions important for cell transformation, the relationship between lethal and transformational damages, and the evolution of initial damages into final chromosomal aberrations which alter the growth control of cells. Using cultured mouse embryo cells (C3H10T1/2) as a model system, we have collected quantitative data on dose-response curves for heavy ions with various charges and energies. An analysis of these quantitative data suggested that two DNA breaks formed within 80 angstroms may cause cell transformation and that two DNA breaks formed within 20 angstroms may be lethal. Through studies with restriction enzymes which produce DNA damages at specific sites, we have found that DNA double strand breaks, including both blunt- and cohesive-ended breaks, can cause cell transformation in vitro. These results indicate that DNA double strand breaks can be important primary lesions for radiogenic cell transformation and that blunt-ended double strand breaks can form lethal as well as transformational damages due to misrepair or incomplete repair in the cell. The RBE-LET relationship is similar for HGPRT gene mutation, chromosomal deletion, and cell transformation, suggesting common lesions may be involved in these radiation effects. The high RBE of high-LET radiation for cell killing and neoplastic cell transformation is most likely related to its effectiveness in producing DNA double strand breaks in mammalian cells. At present the role of oncogenes in radiation cell transformation is unclear.     

Effects of heavy ion radiation on the brain vascular system and embryonic development.

Using neonatal rats as a model system, we investigated the response of the brain vascular system to ionizing radiation and found that distinct petechial hemorrhages developed in the cerebral cortex within a few hours after irradiation, reached a maximum about 13 to 24 hours, and decreased exponentially with time. No brain hemorrhage was found in neonatal rats 12 days after irradiation. Our experimental results indicate that a dose of a few hundred rad of X rays can induce a significant number of hemorrhages in the brain, and the number of lesions increases exponentially with dose. Heavy ions induce more hemorrhages than X rays for a given dose, and the RBE for 670 MeV/u neon particles ranges from about 2.0 for low doses to about 1.4 for high doses. A histological study of the hemorrhages indicates that a large number of red blood cells leak from the blood vessels. The radiation-induced hemorrhages may be a result of some capillary membrane damages or reproductive death of some blood vessel epithelial cells. The fast onset of hemorrhage after irradiation suggest that some membrane damage may be involved. The effect of heavy-ion radiation on the embryonic development was studied with energetic iron particles. Pregnant mice were whole-body irradiated with 600 MeV/u iron particles on day 6 of gestation and were sacrificed 12 days after irradiation. Various physical abnormalities were observed, and embryos irradiated with 1 rad iron particles showed retardation of body development.     

Resonance in a coupled solar-climate model

The 11–year solar activity cycle is magnetic in origin and is responsible for small changes in solar luminosity and the modulation of the solar wind. The terrestrial climate exhibits much internal variability supporting oscillations with many frequencies. The direct effect of changing solar irradiance in driving climatic change is believed to be small, and amplification mechanisms are needed to enhance the role of solar variability. In this paper we demonstrate that resonance may play a crucial role in the dynamics of the climate system, by using the output from a nonlinear solar dynamo model as a weak input to a simplified climate model. The climate is modelled as oscillating about two fixed points (corresponding to a warm and cold state) with the weak chaotically modulated solar forcing on average pushing the solution towards the warm state. When a typical frequency of the input is similar to that of the chaotic climate system then a dramatic increase in the role of the solar forcing is apparent and complicated intermittent behaviour is observed. The nonlinear effects are subtle however, and forcing that on average pushes the solution towards the warm state may lead to increased intervals of oscillation about either state. Owing to the intermittent nature of the timeseries, analysis of the relevant timeseries is shown to be non-trivial.     

The earth explorer candidates: Nine focused missions, all satellite classes

The size of a satellite should follow naturally from the mission requirements taking into account implementation constraints, notably the choice of launcher and programmatics. The key concepts are “focused mission” and “maximum return for the investment”. The nine candidates proposed for the ESA Earth Explorer programme of research missions form a good representative set to illustrate a discussion of satellite classes. These focused missions lead to satellites from less than 100 kg and 100 W, to more than 2000 kg and 2 kW of power generation and include flights of opportunity and precursor experiments.     

The topside sounder database – Data screening and systematic biases

The ionospheric topside sounder measurement database developed at the US National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) is a valuable source of information when investigating the composition and complex dynamics of the upper ionosphere. The database is increasingly used by many scientists around the world for both research and development of empirical models. However, there is always a danger of indiscriminately using the data without properly assessing the data quality and applicability for a given purpose. This paper is concerned with the issue of data screening and pre-processing of the Alouette/ISIS topside sounder database. An overview of the original database availability and formatting is given and the use of solar and geomagnetic indices is discussed. Data screening procedures, concerning detection and handling of erroneous profiles, are also presented. Special attention is drawn to the systematic biases observed in the database and the possibilities for their removal.     

Cometary Deuterium

Deuterium fractionations in cometary ices provide important clues to the origin and evolution of comets. Mass spectrometers aboard spaceprobe Giotto revealed the first accurate D/H ratios in the water of Comet 1P/Halley. Ground-based observations of HDO in Comets C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake) and C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp), the detection of DCN in Comet Hale-Bopp, and upper limits for several other D-bearing molecules complement our limited sample of D/H measurements. On the basis of this data set all Oort cloud comets seem to exhibit a similar ratio in H₂O, enriched by about a factor of two relative to terrestrial water and approximately one order of magnitude relative to the protosolar value. Oort cloud comets, and by inference also classical short-period comets derived from the Kuiper Belt cannot be the only source for the Earth's oceans. The cometary O/C ratio and dynamical reasons make it difficult to defend an early influx of icy planetesimals from the Jupiter zone to the early Earth. D/H measurements of OH groups in phyllosilicate rich meteorites suggest a mixture of cometary water and water adsorbed from the nebula by the rocky grains that formed the bulk of the Earth may be responsible for the terrestrial D/H. The D/H ratio in cometary HCN is 7 times higher than the value in cometary H₂O. Species-dependent D-fractionations occur at low temperatures and low gas densities via ion-molecule or grain-surface reactions and cannot be explained by a pure solar nebula chemistry. It is plausible that cometary volatiles preserved the interstellar D fractionation. The observed D abundances set a lower limit to the formation temperature of (30 ± 10) K. Similar numbers can be derived from the ortho-to-para ratio in cometary water, from the absence of neon in cometary ices and the presence of S₂. Noble gases on Earth and Mars, and the relative abundance of cometary hydrocarbons place the comet formation temperature near 50 K. So far all cometary D/H measurements refer to bulk compositions, and it is conceivable that significant departures from the mean value could occur at the grain-size level. Strong isotope effects as a result of coma chemistry can be excluded for molecules H₂O and HCN. A comparison of the cometary ratio with values found in the atmospheres of the outer planets is consistent with the long-held idea that the gas planets formed around icy cores with a high cometary D/H ratio and subsequently accumulated significant amounts of H₂ from the solar nebula with a low protosolar D/H. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.