Observations of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter from Earth orbit

In April 1972 OAO-2 obtained broadband filter measurements of the Galilean satellites from 2100 to 4300 Å. All four bodies were shown to have low albedos declining towards shorter wavelengths, thus constraining the proportions of their surfaces that could be covered by reflective frosts. Although the vast data return from Voyager spacecraft has for the first time permitted a detailed comparison of Galilean satellites with terrestrial planets, it has not removed the need for continuing long time-base observations of the former. Since January 1978, IUE has repeatedly obtained Galilean spectra within the range 1150 to 3200 Å. Observations of Io have placed an upper limit on the global abundance of SO₂ in its atmosphere. Spectral variations with phase have allowed spatial mapping of surface reflectance in the case of Io, and may enable volcanic activity to be monitored.     

The application of dimensional analysis to cosmology

Cosmology as it is usually studied suffers from the problem that no criterion is known which isolates from the large class of models allowed by the equations of physics those few which are realized in Nature. To provide such a criterion, it is proposed that cosmology should be based on the study of models which are free of arbitrary scales or units, this condition being compatible with (but not identical with) the Cosmological Principle. Formally, the basis for scale-free cosmology can be expressed in a dimensional Conspiracy Hypothesis: The material parameters of a system (mass, density, pressure etc.), the constants of physics and the coordinates have realizable physical meanings only when they occur together in dimensionless combinations (-numbers) in which the components may vary with time or place but in such a manner that the variations conspire to keep the -numbers constant. The Conspiracy Hypothesis (CH) streamlines cosmology, simplifying it to the finding of a few dimensionless numbers. Applied to Einstein's general relativity, the CH yields a simple cosmological model consisting of static clusters of galaxies with inverse-square density profiles embedded in an expanding, homogeneous background. This model agrees well with the observed Universe insofar as the latter can be described by general relativity. The CH can also be applied to other theories of gravity, especially those in which the gravitational parameter G is variable, and can also in itself be taken as a basis for gravitational theory.     

北美波音747维修业务进退维谷

在北美,波音747-400运营商到海外进行机体的重维修似乎成为其唯一的选择。根据《航空周刊》5月1日的数据,美国有10家公司运营着125架波音747飞机,其中93架为波音747-400。在这些飞机中,有51架从事客运服务,主要由美联航和达美航空公司运营,其余42架用作货机。北美其他国家不运营波音747。     

Towards a European vision for space exploration: Recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission

As a result of increasing public and political interest in ‘space’ (i.e. solar system) exploration at the global scale, the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission has evaluated the situation in Europe with regard to its potential to participate in this ambitious global enterprise. Aspects of science, technology, environment and safety, society, spin-offs and international cooperation were all considered. The group concluded that Europe possesses sufficient key technologies and scientific expertise to play a major role in international space exploration and has recommended that the EU take a central role to ensure the success of future European space exploration, not only to give a clear political signal for the way forward but also to ensure an appropriate financial framework. In this way Europe would embrace the spirit of the European Space Policy and contribute to the knowledge-based society by investing significantly in space-based science and technology, thereby playing a strong role in international space exploration.     

Mitigation of the impact of terrestrial contamination on organic measurements from the Mars Science Laboratory

The objective of the 2009 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), which is planned to follow the Mars Exploration Rovers and the Phoenix lander to the surface of Mars, is to explore and assess quantitatively a site on Mars as a potential habitat for present or past life. Specific goals include an assessment of the past or present biological potential of the target environment and a characterization of its geology and geochemistry. Included in the 10 investigations of the MSL rover is the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite, which is designed to obtain trace organic measurements, measure water and other volatiles, and measure several light isotopes with experiment sequences designed for both atmospheric and solid-phase samples. SAM integrates a gas chromatograph, a mass spectrometer, and a tunable laser spectrometer supported by sample manipulation tools both within and external to the suite. The sub-part-per-billion sensitivity of the suite for trace species, particularly organic molecules, along with a mobile platform that will contain many kilograms of organic materials, presents a considerable challenge due to the potential for terrestrial contamination to mask the signal of martian organics. We describe the effort presently underway to understand and mitigate, wherever possible within the resource constraints of the mission, terrestrial contamination in MSL and SAM measurements.     

Measuring performance: Moving NASA Earth science products into the mainstream user community

Demonstrating performance of the applications of Earth observation satellite-based science data products and services is increasingly a requirement of government research agencies. We present efforts from the NASA-funded Earth Observing System Data and Information System's Synergy Project to measure performance in the development of applications from NASA research and development projects. We summarize challenges in monitoring performance and share our experience in evolving metrics over a 5-year project life. We demonstrate how to adapt project management processes and metrics from the information technology (IT) industry to Earth observation applications research and development. A roadmap for adapting IT processes and developing metrics and examples of quantitative and qualitative metrics are provided. Our findings suggest that designing and implementing these IT metrics will enhance project success, as defined by the degree of penetration of NASA products into the user community and level of non-NASA funding secured.     

Issues relating to civilian and military dual uses of GNSS

This paper discusses the civilian and military dual uses of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Its focus is on the primary GNSS provider: the United States dual use Global Positioning System (GPS). The Russian Glonass is also dual use but this is used much less than GPS. It is difficult for the US Department of Defense to accommodate the requirements of all the civilian users. Resolution of some dual use problems is accomplished through pressure and negotiation. International civilian users exacerbate the dual use problem by demanding service guaranties and a share of control over GPS. Additionally, Europeans seek to obtain a share of the promising GNSS industry and employment by building their own GNSS provider Galileo.     

A Modification to Improve the Inverse Filter of Senmoto and Childers

An inverse filter, contained in a recently published paper by Senmoto and Childers, is improved by the application of a shaping function derived by Turin in an earlier paper.     

Geochemical Consequences of Widespread Clay Mineral Formation in Mars’ Ancient Crust

Clays form on Earth by near-surface weathering, precipitation in water bodies within basins, hydrothermal alteration (volcanic- or impact-induced), diagenesis, metamorphism, and magmatic precipitation. Diverse clay minerals have been detected from orbital investigation of terrains on Mars and are globally distributed, indicating geographically widespread aqueous alteration. Clay assemblages within deep stratigraphic units in the Martian crust include Fe/Mg smectites, chlorites and higher temperature hydrated silicates. Sedimentary clay mineral assemblages include Fe/Mg smectites, kaolinite, and sulfate, carbonate, and chloride salts. Stratigraphic sequences with multiple clay-bearing units have an upper unit with Al-clays and a lower unit with Fe/Mg-clays. The typical restriction of clay minerals to the oldest, Noachian terrains indicates a distinctive set of processes involving water-rock interaction that was prevalent early in Mars history and may have profoundly influenced the evolution of Martian geochemical systems. Current analyses of orbital data have led to the proposition of multiple clay-formation mechanisms, varying in space and time in their relative importance. These include near-surface weathering, formation in ice-dominated near-surface groundwaters, and formation by subsurface hydrothermal fluids. Near-surface, open system formation of clays would lead to fractionation of Mars’ crustal reservoir into an altered crustal reservoir and a sedimentary reservoir, potentially involving changes in the composition of Mars’ atmosphere. In contrast, formation of clays in the subsurface by either aqueous alteration or magmatic cooling would result in comparatively little geochemical fractionation or interaction of Mars’ atmospheric, crustal, and magmatic reservoirs, with the exception of long-term sequestration of water. Formation of clays within ice would have geochemical consequences intermediate between these endmembers. We outline the future analyses of orbital data, in situ measurements acquired within clay-bearing terrains, and analyses of Mars samples that are needed to more fully elucidate the mechanisms of martian clay formation and to determine the consequences for the geochemical evolution of the planet.