The use of stereoscopic satellite observation in the determination of the emissivity of cirrus

The feasibility of determining cirrus “emissivity” from combined stereoscopic and infrared satellite observations in conjunction with radiosounding data is investigated for a particular case study. Simultaneous visible images obtained during SESAME-1979 from two geosynchronous GOES meteorological satellites were processed on the NASA/Goddard interactive system (AOIPS) and were used to determine the stereo cloud top height Z_C as described by Hasler [1]. Iso-contours of radiances were outlined on the corresponding infrared image. Total brightness temperature T_B and ground surface brightness temperature T_S were inferred from the radiances. The special SESAME network of radiosoundings was used to determine the cloud top temperature T_CLD at the level defined by Z_C. The “effective cirrus emissivity” NE where N is the fractional cirrus cloudiness and E is the emissivity in a GOES infrared picture element of about 10 km × 10 km is then computed from T_B, T_S and T_CLD.     

Stereoscopic imaging from polar orbit and synthetic stereo imaging

The photogrammetric determination of cloud top heights from stereoscopic satellite images seems to be a very good solution to this hitherto unresolved problem. Whereas in the U.S.A., stereoscopic imaging is done by use of geosynchronous weather satellites, in Europe such a system cannot be used because there is only one geosynchronous satellite (METEOSAT). An alternative could be a Stero Line Scanner (SLS) operating on a polar orbiter.SLS would scan twice, forward and backward, producing in this way two image strips for steroscopic viewing and photogrammetric measurements from pole to pole. Because of the cloud motion between the two scans, a SLS needs additional independent height information for reference points, e.g. from a Laser Ranger (LAR). The advantage of this method is that cloud motion, and therefore wind, can also be determined for these reference points. Another solution is a system of two SLS satellites flying one after the other and scanning the same area simultaneously. This allows cloud motion determination across the whole image. The use of infrared channels also allows night operation and provides additional data such as improved seas surface temperatures.The DFVLR is currently studying these problems. Synthetic stereoscopic imaging is being used in a forerunner programm to the SLS project and also for simulation in SLS studies.     

移动通信卫星经济性分析

由小型近地轨道卫星组成星座,实现移动通信服务,是卫星通信发展的重要方向。近地轨道卫星和地球静止轨道卫星用作移动通信卫星网,各有其优缺点。文章从经济性角度对两类卫星网进行了比较,重点是对不同高度的轨道(包括低、中、地球静止)的移动通信系统的空间部分成本——卫星星座的研制成本与发射成本进行分析比较,给出了具体的运算公式和计算结果。其结论是:轨道高度越低,卫星网的成本越高;地球静止轨道卫星网的成本最低。但是,决定是否发展小型近地轨道通信卫星网,不能仅考虑经济因素,还要考虑对技术进步的推动作用。     

Real-time stereoscopic applications using the goes operational satellites

We have investigated the use of real and synthetic stereo satellite images and stereo graphics in applications such as cloud-tracked winds, severe storm cloud analysis, and general meteorological interpretation. We have concluded that a stereo meteorological presentation is possible and desirable in an operational environment. Synthetic stereo could be used immediately in cloud-tracked wind operations. The presentation allows one to appreciate the interrelations between cloud motions and cloud structures, especially in multi-layered situations. Reprocessing of FGGE tropical wind sets with a synthetic stereo presentation showed some improved yields of low-level vectors, a significant increase in mid-level vectors, and very little change in the high-level vectors. Severe local storm real-stereo presentations are possible operationally because the 15 minute RISOP operations of GOES-East allow simultaneous scanning of both geosynchronous satellites twice per hour. The real-stereo height measurements of overshooting turrets are an improvement over infrared heights and can be used to monitor the strength of the thunderstorm updraft. Synthetic stereo presentations of thunderstorm tops can be presented in a non-linear fashion which stretches out the cloud top features. The synthetic stereo presentation is easier for most people to see. We recommend the use of a hybrid system where the viewing is done on the synthetic stereo image and the quantitative measurements are done on the real-stereo pairs.     

Sea surface temperature measurement from satellites: Validation and accuracy

A review of the latest published results concerning the accuracy of satellite derived sea surface temperature (SST) estimation is presented. Two types of platforms are considered : orbiting satellites and geosynchronous satellites and the accuracies that may now be expected from such systems are reported. This review emphasizes the impressive improvement in global mapping of SST obtained from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on NOAA's operational polar satellites. Tests of the AVHRR SST's against a high reliability data set consisting of buoys, bathythermographs and research ship reports indicate biases of < 0.1°C and RMS differences of < 0.75°C (McClain [1]). Particular attention is also paid to a method adding along track scanning capability to the present multichannel AVHRR technique. This method is demonstrated owing to the coupling of an orbiting satellite (TIROS-N) and a geosynchronous satellite (METEOSAT). Another type of coupling of two such platforms is also presented in connection with the advent of geostationary satellites equipped with a vertical sounding capability, such as GOES-4.     

Instantaneous BeiDou–GPS attitude determination: A performance analysis

The advent of modernized and new global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) has enhanced the availability of satellite based positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) solutions. Specifically, it increases redundancy and yields operational back-up or independence in case of failure or unavailability of one system. Among existing GNSS, the Chinese BeiDou system (BDS) is being developed and will consist of geostationary (GEO) satellites, inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO) satellites, and medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites. In this contribution, a BeiDou–GPS robustness analysis is carried out for instantaneous, unaided attitude determination.     

基于认知无线电的GEO与LEO卫星频谱共存

随着新的宽带多媒体业务的发展，宽带无线频谱的需求日益增长。同时，低轨道（LEO）卫星由于其传输损耗低、传播时延小而被大规模部署。为了更好地利用频谱资源，卫星通信系统普遍采用高轨道（GEO）卫星与LEO卫星频谱共存的方案来提高频谱利用率。在频谱共存的过程中，提出了一种基于动态阈值的能量检测与波束跳跃相结合的算法，以减小LEO对GEO卫星的干扰。首先对LEO卫星的信噪比进行估计并实时选择最优阈值，然后利用基于动态阈值的能量检测算法对GEO卫星信号进行判别，最后根据判断的结果进行波束调整。仿真结果表明，提出的基于动态阈值的能量检测算法的检测误差明显低于传统的基于固定阈值的能量检测算法和基于二阶循环统计量的频谱感知方法。当信噪比低于-10dB的情况下，检测误差低于0.2；而当信噪比高于-5dB时，检测误差趋近于0。     

The observation of ocean-surface fluxes of heat,water and momentum for climate studies

The potential of satellite measurements to define the ocean surface fluxes of heat, water and momentum is reviewed. Only surface stress and possibly rainfall can be directly estimated, latent heat flux may be available through parametrization, sensible heat flux cannot be obtained. Each of the radiative flux components may be estimated including possibly the downward longwave flux. However it is emphasised that, even for those fluxes which can be obtained, improvements in absolute accuracy of the monthly mean, area averaged values are required. Sampling by a single polar orbiting satellite is likely to be at best, marginally adequate. In most cases a pair of satellites will be needed.Calibration and continued validation of the satellite data using improved $\text{in situ}$ data will be necessary, and a combination of measurement systems will have to be used if the accuracy requirements are to be approached. Provision of $\text{in situ}$ data systems should be considered as part of the planning for future satellite missions. Satellite data collection and location could result in a considerable improvement to the $\text{in situ}$ data set.     

Comparison of various empirical models of electron temperature with experimental measurements during low solar activity

Comparisons of various available empirical models of electron temperature are made with actual measurements from incoherent scatter radar and rocket and satellite probes, during low solar activity period. The models compared are those of Pandey $\text{et al.}$ (1983), Brace and Theis (1978), IRI (1979) and Bilitza (1983). It is found that our model and the Brace and Theis model are closer to actual measurements than the IRI and Bilitza models.     

Orbit determination of BeiDou navigation satellite system maneuvered satellites based on instantaneous velocity pulses parameters

The BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) comprises geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellites as well as inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO) and medium earth orbit (MEO) satellites. Owing to their special orbital characteristics, GEO satellites require frequent orbital maneuvers to ensure that they operate in a specific orbital window. The availability of the entire system is affected during the maneuver period because service cannot be provided before the ephemeris is restored. In this study, based on the conventional dynamic orbit determination method for navigation satellites, multiple sets of instantaneous velocity pulses parameters which belong to one of pseudo-stochastic parameters were used to simulate the orbital maneuver process in the orbital maneuver arc and establish the observed and predicted orbits of the maneuvered and non-maneuvered satellites of BeiDou regional navigation satellite system (BDS-2) and BeiDou global navigation satellite system (BDS-3). Finally, the single point positioning (SPP) technology was used to verify the accuracy of the observed and predicted orbits. The orbit determination accuracy of maneuvered satellites can be greatly improved by using the orbit determination method proposed in this paper. The overlapping orbit determination accuracy of maneuvered GEO satellites of BDS-2 and BDS-3 can improve 2–3 orders of magnitude. Among them, the radial orbit determination accuracy of each maneuvered satellite is basically better than 1 m. simultaneously, the combined orbit determination of the maneuvered and non-maneuvered satellites does not have a great impact on the orbit determination accuracy of the non-maneuvered satellites. Compared with the multi GNSS products (indicated by GBM) from the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ), the impact of adding the maneuvered satellites on the orbit determination accuracy of BDS-2 satellites is less than 9 %. Furthermore, the orbital recovery time and the service availability period are significantly improved. When the node of the predicted orbit is traversed approximately 3 h after the maneuver, the accuracy of the predicted orbit of the maneuvered satellite can reach that of the observed orbit. The SPP results for the BDS reached a normal level when the node of the predicted orbit was 2 h after the maneuver.     

A universal on-orbit servicing system used in the geostationary orbit

The geostationary orbit (GEO), a unique satellite orbit of the human beings, is a very precious orbit resource. However, the continuous increasing of GEO debris makes the GEO orbit more and more crowded. Moreover, the failures of GEO spacecrafts will result in large economic cost and other bad impacts. In this paper, we proposed a space robotic servicing system, and developed key pose (position and orientation) measurement and control algorithm. Firstly, the necessity of orbit service in GEO was analyzed. Then, a servicing concept for GEO non-cooperative targets was presented and a universal space robotic servicing system was designed. The system has a 2-DOF docking mechanism, a 7-DOF redundant manipulator and a set of stereo vision, in addition to the traditional subsystems of a spacecraft. This system can serve most existing satellites in GEO, not requiring specially designed objects for grappling and measuring on the target. The servicing contents include: (a) visual inspecting; (b) target tracking, approaching and docking; (c) ORUs (Orbital Replacement Units) replacement; (d) Malfunctioned mechanism deploying; (e) satellites life extension by taking over its control, or re-orbiting the abandoned satellites. As an example, the servicing mission of a malfunctioned GEO satellite with three severe mechanical failures was designed and simulated. The results showed the validity and flexibility of the proposed system.     

The YORP effect on the GOES 8 and GOES 10 satellites: A case study

The Yarkovsky-O’Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect is a proposed explanation for the observed rotation behavior of inactive satellites in Earth orbit. This paper further explores the YORP effect for highly asymmetric inactive satellites. Satellite models are developed to represent the GOES 8 and GOES 10 satellites, both of which are currently inactive in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO). A simple satellite model for the GOES 8 satellite is used to analyze the short period variations of the angular velocity and obliquity as a result of the YORP effect. A more complex model for the rotational dynamics of the GOES 8 and GOES 10 satellites are developed to probe their sensitivity and to match observed spin periods and states of these satellites. The simulated rotation periods are compared to observations for both satellites. The comparison between YORP theory and observed rotation rates for both satellites show that the YORP effect could be the cause for the observed rotational behavior. The YORP model also predicts a novel state for the GOES 8 satellite, namely that it could periodically fall into a tumbling rotation state. Recent observations of this satellite are consistent with this prediction.     

Climate studies from satellite observations: Special problems in the verification of earth radiation balance,cloud climatology,and related climate experiments

A body of techniques that have been developed and planned for use during the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE), the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), and related climate experiments of the 1980's are reviewed. Validation and verification methods must apply for $\text{systems}$ of satellites. They include: (1) use of a normalization or intercalibration satellite, (2) special intensive observation areas located over ground-truth sites, and (3) monitoring of sun and earth by several satellites and/or several instruments at the same time. Since each climate application area has a hierarchy of user communities, validation techniques vary from very detailed methods to those that simply assure high relative accuracy in detecting space and time variations for climate studies. It is shown that climate experiments generally require more emphasis on long-term stability and internal consistency of satellite data sets than high absolute accuracy.     

基于空间隔离的低轨卫星系统频谱共享方法

随着业务需求的全球性增长,传统低频波段有限的频谱资源已不能满足低轨（LEO）卫星的业务承载要求,采用Ka频段的LEO星座系统设计成为了主流。然而,采用Ka频段的LEO星座系统不可避免地会对同频段已经存在的静止轨道（GEO）卫星系统产生干扰。首先,通过基于空间隔离的干扰规避方法,采用对LEO与GEO的频谱共用系统设置隔离角来进行上下行场景的干扰消除,使该LEO系统能满足国际电信联盟（ITU）对同频段内通信干扰的约束条件;然后,通过引入GEO带的概念,分析并研究了干扰规避区域的确定方法和其对LEO星座密度的影响。最后,通过仿真得出了干扰隔离角、GEO带与LEO星座密度的关系,得到了在采用隔离角的方式进行干扰避让时满足LEO星座系统业务不中断所需要的最小卫星数量,对LEO星座设计具有一定的指导意义。      

An improved focusing method for geosynchronous SAR

More and more attention is paid to Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in recent years due to its fine temporal resolution and large coverage, so that GEO SAR will play an important role in monitoring natural disasters, but its imaging is more difficult compared to lower Earth orbit (LEO) SAR because of the increase of orbit height. This paper mainly studies the coverage property and focusing method in GEO SAR. As is known to us, the coverage of a GEO SAR satellite can reach 1/3 of the whole Earth, and the revisiting time can reduce to 2 h, which will remarkably improve the capability in ocean applications, earth dynamics and natural hazards management and so on. Compared with the imaging in LEO SAR, a problem in GEO SAR is that the linear trajectory model can bring a big error due to the long synthetic aperture time, so that the classical imaging algorithms in LEO SAR cannot be directly applied in GEO SAR. Using the Norm method and Taylor expansion method, this paper gains an accurate slant range model, which can resolve the big error of the linear trajectory at perigee and collapse of the linear trajectory at apogee. Furthermore, this paper deduces a novel imaging algorithm for GEO SAR by means of series reversion, which realizes the focusing on large scene under the synthetic aperture time of 100 s. Finally, the simulation results at apogee and perigee prove the correction of the slant range model and imaging algorithm.     

Geosynchronous satellites expanding a future GNSS satellite constellation: A precise orbit determination study

The integration of geosynchronous orbit (GSO) satellites in Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is mostly discussed to enable a regional enhancement for tracking. But how do GSO satellites affect the orbit determination of the rest of the constellation? How accurately can these orbits be determined in a future GNSS tracking scenario with optical links? In this simulation study we analyze the benefit of GSO satellites as an expansion of a MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) satellite constellation – we selected the Galileo satellite constellation – for MEO Precise Orbit Determination (POD). We address not only the impact on POD of MEO satellites but also the possibility to precisely determine the GSO satellites – geostationary orbits (GEO) and inclined geosynchronous orbits (IGSO) – in such an expanded MEO constellation. In addition to GNSS microwave observations, we analyze the influence of different optical links between the participating entities: Optical two-way Inter-Satellite Links (OISL) and ground-space oriented Optical Two-Way Links (OTWL). These optical measurements together with the GNSS microwave observations give a remarkable benefit for the POD capability. In the case of GNSS and OTWL, we simulate the measurements with regard to a network of 16 ground stations. We pay great attention to the simulation of systematic effects of all measurement techniques. We discuss the influence on the systematic errors as well as the formal orbit uncertainties. A MEO constellation expanded with GSO satellites as well as the use of optical links together with GNSS observations not only improves the MEO satellite orbits but also the GSOs to a great extent.     

对GEO卫星在轨加注的服务航天器组网方案优化

对地球静止轨道（GeosynchronousOrbit,GEO）卫星在轨加注燃料以延长其工作寿命蕴含着巨大的经济价值,而执行加注任务的服务航天器在轨组网方案直接影响在轨加注任务全局。文章以GEO卫星为在轨服务对象,开展了提供加注服务的航天器最优组网方案研究。提出了1个燃料存储站加N个加注飞行器的服务航天器体系架构,燃料存储站承载大量燃料,长期在轨稳定运行;加注飞行器机动运行,执行对GEO卫星加注任务,当加注飞行器燃料不足时,返回燃料存储站获取燃料。燃料存储站的质量、运行轨道,加注飞行器的数目、质量与运行轨道、对GEO卫星提供加注的加注飞行器任务分配等是组网方案研究的重点,建立了以对GEO卫星加注任务的响应时间短、服务系统成本低为互斥评价准则的服务航天器组网方案的多目标优化设计数学模型,分析了组网方案优化问题的求解方法及流程,采用多目标粒子群算法对服务航天器组网方案进行了优化设计,通过分析一组非支配优化设计结果对于2个互斥评价准则的平衡性,提出了1个燃料存储站加4～6个加注飞行器的服务航天器最优组网方案。     

卫星组网构型设计及接入算法技术研究

为了弥补单层卫星网络的缺点,综合各单层卫星网络的优点,形成优势互补,为用户提供更好的服务质量,混合卫星网络应运而生.针对不同的卫星接入算法对卫星的服务质量的影响各不相同,重点研究设计更好的混合卫星网络和卫星接入算法.在分析GEO、MEO、LEO和HEO卫星网络各自的特点的基础上,综合其性能的好坏和设计实现的难易程度,设计并提出5 GEO+66 LEO的双层卫星网络及多QoS约束的卫星接入算法.最后通过仿真分析,验证该算法的正确性.     

Dynamical cartography of Earth satellite orbits

We have carried out a numerical investigation of the coupled gravitational and non-gravitational perturbations acting on Earth satellite orbits in an extensive grid, covering the whole circumterrestrial space, using an appropriately modified version of the SWIFT symplectic integrator, which is suitable for long-term ($～$120?years) integrations of the non-averaged equations of motion. Hence, we characterize the long-term dynamics and the phase-space structure of the Earth-orbiter environment, starting from low altitudes ($～$400?km) and going up to the GEO region and beyond. This investigation was done in the framework of the EC-funded “ReDSHIFT” project, with the purpose of enabling the definition of passive debris removal strategies, based on the use of physical mechanisms inherent in the complex dynamics of the problem (i.e., resonances). Accordingly, the complicated interactions among resonances, generated by different perturbing forces (i.e., lunisolar gravity, solar radiation pressure, tesseral harmonics in the geopotential) are accurately depicted in our results, where we can identify the regions of phase space where the motion is regular and long-term stable and regions for which eccentricity growth and even instability due to chaotic behavior can emerge. The results are presented in an “atlas” of dynamical stability maps for different orbital zones, with a particular focus on the (drag-free) range of semimajor axes, where the perturbing effects of the Earth’s oblateness and lunisolar gravity are of comparable order. In some regions, the overlapping of the predominant lunisolar secular and semi-secular resonances furnish a number of interesting disposal hatches at moderate to low eccentricity orbits. All computations were repeated for an increased area-to-mass ratio, simulating the case of a satellite equipped with an on-board, area-augmenting device. We find that this would generally promote the deorbiting process, particularly at the transition region between LEO and MEO. Although direct reentry from very low eccentricities is very unlikely in most cases of interest, we find that a modest “delta-v” ($\mathrm{\Delta }V$) budget would be enough for satellites to be steered into a relatively short-lived resonance and achieve reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere within reasonable timescales ($～$50?years).