Unsteady aerodynamics and flow control for flapping wing flyers

The creation of micro air vehicles (MAVs) of the same general sizes and weight as natural fliers has spawned renewed interest in flapping wing flight. With a wingspan of approximately 15 cm and a flight speed of a few meters per second, MAVs experience the same low Reynolds number (10⁴–10⁵) flight conditions as their biological counterparts. In this flow regime, rigid fixed wings drop dramatically in aerodynamic performance while flexible flapping wings gain efficacy and are the preferred propulsion method for small natural fliers. Researchers have long realized that steady-state aerodynamics does not properly capture the physical phenomena or forces present in flapping flight at this scale. Hence, unsteady flow mechanisms must dominate this regime. Furthermore, due to the low flight speeds, any disturbance such as gusts or wind will dramatically change the aerodynamic conditions around the MAV. In response, a suitable feedback control system and actuation technology must be developed so that the wing can maintain its aerodynamic efficiency in this extremely dynamic situation; one where the unsteady separated flow field and wing structure are tightly coupled and interact nonlinearly. For instance, birds and bats control their flexible wings with muscle tissue to successfully deal with rapid changes in the flow environment. Drawing from their example, perhaps MAVs can use lightweight actuators in conjunction with adaptive feedback control to shape the wing and achieve active flow control. This article first reviews the scaling laws and unsteady flow regime constraining both biological and man-made fliers. Then a summary of vortex dominated unsteady aerodynamics follows. Next, aeroelastic coupling and its effect on lift and thrust are discussed. Afterwards, flow control strategies found in nature and devised by man to deal with separated flows are examined. Recent work is also presented in using microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators and angular speed variation to achieve active flow control for MAVs. Finally, an explanation for aerodynamic gains seen in flexible versus rigid membrane wings, derived from an unsteady three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model with an integrated distributed control algorithm, is presented.     

面向复杂构型飞机的非定常气动力建模与辨识

不论是现代高机动隐身战斗机的设计需求还是常规布局飞机的飞行动力学分析,深入研究大迎角飞行时的非线性非定常气动力模型都极其重要。基于纵向运动小振幅及大振幅强迫振荡试验数据,分析了常规稳定导数模型的准确性,并从导数模型出发发展了简化涡流和分离流时间迟滞效应的非定常气动力线性模型和非线性模型,最后应用风洞典型机动历程模拟试验验证了模型的有效性。结果表明：对于复杂构型高机动飞机模型,发展并改进的非线性微分方程模型可以准确预测飞机不同机动下的非定常气动力特性,具有较强的工程可行性。     

绕钝体分离流动的非定常数值模拟研究

利用非定常RNGk-ε模型对三种典型的钝体绕流问题进行了研究,这三种流动分别为:方柱绕流、圆柱绕流和绕立方柱流动。研究表明了采用非定常雷诺平均方法可以研究钝体绕流的非定常流动,但所获得的结果各不相同。对于分离角固定的方柱绕流和绕立方柱流动,数值模拟结果和实验以及大涡模拟结果吻合较好,对于分离角不固定的圆柱绕流,随着雷诺数的增加,数值模拟结果和实验结果相差越大,分析认为这是由于壁面模型无法准确预测流动中不固定的分离角所致。改进了绕立方柱流动的模拟方法,采用非定常模拟方法后获得的结果要比定常模拟方法得到的结果有了根本改善。     

非定常自由来流对飞机模型气动特性的影响

在国内首座非定常风洞中，研究了不同幅值、不同频率脉动的非定常自由来流对飞机模型气动特性的影响。结果表明，当来流减速时，升力系数增加，当来流加速时，升力系数减小；随着迎角的增大，非定常自由来流对升力系数的影响增大；当来流脉动频率一定时，随脉动幅值的增大，升力系数增大；当脉动幅值一定时，随脉动频率增大，升力系数增大。因此在研究飞机机动飞行的同时，考虑飞行速度变化的影响是十分必要的。     

一种大负荷低压涡轮叶型的气动性能

基于Lantry-Menter转捩模型,分别对Zweifel升力系数为1.2的一种大负荷低压涡轮叶型在定常来流不同湍流度、雷诺数条件下,上游非定常、周期性尾迹作用下的流动进行了数值模拟.计算结果表明,定常来流低雷诺数条件下,湍流度对该大负荷叶型的气动性能影响较大;上游非定常、周期性尾迹对叶型吸力面分离泡的抑制作用可进一步减小低雷诺数条件下的叶型损失.计算结果揭示了该大负荷叶型在低压涡轮内部真实流动环境中的表面流动及损失特征,对国内现行低压涡轮设计有着较好的启示.      

Transonic flutter computations for the NLR 7301 supercritical airfoil

A numerical investigation of the transonic steady-state aerodynamics and of the two-degree-of-freedom bending/torsion flutter characteristics of the NLR 7301 section is carried out using a time-domain method. An unsteady, two-dimensional, compressible, thin-layer Navier–Stokes flow-solver is coupled with a two-degree-of-freedom structural model. Fully turbulent flows are computed with algebraic or one-equation turbulence models. Furthermore, natural transition is modeled with a transition model. Computations of the steady transonic aerodynamic characteristics show good agreement with Schewe's experiment after a simplified accounting for wind-tunnel interference effects is used. The aeroelastic computations predict limit-cycle flutter in agreement with the experiment. The computed flutter frequency agrees closely with the experiment but the computed flutter amplitudes are an order of magnitude larger than the measured ones. This discrepancy is likely due to the omission of the full wind-tunnel interference effects in the computations.     

Unsteady separated flows over three-dimensional slender bodies

Many review articles have been written on the topic of the aerodynamics of slender bodies at incidence, some of which are referenced in this paper. Here, we review the unsteady behavior of these flows. Our aim is to review the material that contributes to our understanding of unsteady phenomena over slender bodies at incidence. Natural unsteadiness is explored first. Unexpectedly, we found a large number of contributions in this area. We found the material disjointed, making it difficult to draw general conclusions. Forced unsteadiness is conceptually easier to follow, but the number of contributions on this topic is much smaller. We consider both experimental and numerical contributions but we do not discuss the corresponding methodologies.     

飞机大攻角非定常气动力建模与辨识

采用一阶微分方程描述由非线性非定常效应引起的气动力增量 ,从而建立了一种新的飞机大攻角非定常气动力数学模型。研究了模型在缓变运动下的线化形式和动导数表达式。讨论了模型参数的辨识问题。算例证实了所建立的气动力数学模型的正确性和所述模型参数辨识方法的有效性     

The role of transition in high-lift low-pressure turbines for aeroengines

The fan of a high bypass ratio turbo fan engine produces up to 80% of the total thrust of the engine. It is the low-pressure (LP) turbine that drives the fan and, on some engines, a number of compressor stages. The unsteady aerodynamics of the LP turbine, and in particular, the role of unsteady flow in laminar–turbulent transition, is the subject of this paper.The flow in turbomachines is unsteady due to the relative motion of the rows of blades. In the LP turbine, the wakes from the upstream blade rows provide the dominant source of unsteadiness. Because much of the blade-surface boundary-layer flow is laminar, one of the most important consequences of this unsteadiness is the interaction of the wakes with the suction-side boundary layer of a downstream blade. This is important because the blade suction—side boundary layers are responsible for most of the loss of efficiency and because the combined effects of random (wake turbulence) and periodic disturbances (wake velocity defect and pressure fields) cause the otherwise laminar boundary layer to undergo transition and eventually become turbulent.This paper discusses the development of unsteady flows in LP turbines and the process of wake-induced boundary-layer transition in low-pressure turbines and the loss generation that results. Particular emphasis will be placed on unsteady separating flows and how the effects of wakes may be exploited to control loss generation in the laminar–turbulent transition processes. This control has allowed the successful development of the latest generation of ultra-high-lift LP turbines. More recent developments, which harness the effects of surface roughness in conjunction with the wakes, are also presented.     

小型和微型无人机的气动特点和设计

讨论了当前包括固定翼、扑翼和微型旋翼的小型无人驾驶飞行器(SUAV)和微型无人驾驶飞行器(MAV)的进展和未来发展可能涉及的技术问题。讨论了低雷诺数空气动力特性,包括分离气泡和展弦比的影响。介绍了用于拍动翼的非定常空气动力特性和高升力机理。讨论了目前存在的2种设计方法——多学科/多目标优化设计和探索式/进化式的设计方法,以及在设计中柔性翼和主动智能控制的重要性。     

民机极限飞行状态的动态气动力试验与建模

飞行失控是造成民机灾难性航空事故的重要因素,飞行失控中飞机难以避免超出正常飞行包线范围,进入具有复杂非线性和非定常动态气动特性的极限飞行状态。本文开展典型民机布局飞机极限飞行状态的动导数、大振幅试验,对大迎角动态气动力的参数影响规律以及非线性、非定常特性进行分析和建模。结果表明,在飞机失速到过失速区域,飞行姿态快速变化过程中动态气动力的非线性和非定常特征显著;在动导数试验和建模中,考虑运动角速率的影响,可以预示气动力非线性的迎角范围,并捕捉到关于飞机动稳定性演化的关键特征;利用Goman-Khrabrov状态空间模型结合大振幅试验,可以确定模型中表征非定常特征的关键时间常数,获得特定极限飞行状态运动中的非定常动态气动力特性。研究方法和结果为开展民机极限飞行状态的动态气动力风洞试验设计与建模提供了一个可行途径,能改进飞机飞行失控预防、极限状态改出、飞行模拟训练和飞行事故分析等。     

Implications of scale effect for the prediction of high angle of attack aerodynamics

Scale effect is of significance in all experimental aerodynamics testing. At high angles of attack such issues as Reynolds and Mach number scaling are further complicated by the presence of complex, unsteady separated flow structures. The understanding and quantification of such flow effects remains a substantial challenge to the combat aircraft designer. The challenge, especially during conceptual and preliminary design stages, is to obtain sufficiently accurate information to make relevant design decisions, addressing potential weaknesses before proceeding to detail design. The focus in the present review is on the application of the water tunnel in such cases. The combination of qualitative and quantitative data obtainable from the water tunnel provides a useful complement to other tools during the early design stages. The effect of Reynolds number in particular is however critical; and appreciation of its effects are critical to the effective use of such a tool. It is shown however that for certain configurations such effects can be small in comparison to other experimental effects.     

多变量非线性非定常气动力的模糊逻辑模型

应用模糊逻辑算法，建立了带升降舵偏角影响的非线性非定常气动力模型逻辑模型，并进行了验证，结果表明：所建立的非定常气动力模型逻辑模型有较强的预测能力，此方法为今后建立多变量、复杂运动的非线性非定常气动力学数学模型，提供很好的借鉴。     

Fluid dynamics of unsteady separated flow. Part II. Lifting surfaces

In the quest for increased maneuverability advanced aircraft have to operate at high angles of attack where the aerodynamics are dominated by the effects of separated flow. Likewise, winged space vehicles, such as the space shuttle orbiter, also fly at high incidence during re-entry in order to restrict heating to the windward side, thereby minimizing heat shield requirements. Thus, the vehicle designer needs to be able to assess what effects the separated flow will have, especially on the vehicle dynamics, as these effects are often adverse and always of large magnitude relative to the attached flow aerodynamics. In spite of rapid development of computational means, purely theoretical methods for prediction of the effect of separated flow on rigid and elastic vehicle dynamics are not presently available, and will not be for some time. To compound the problem for the vehicle designer, dynamic simulation in an experiment requires the testing to be performed at full scale Reynolds number. The present paper shows a practical solution to this dilemma. An analytic method is described that uses static experimental data to predict the separated flow effect on rigid and elastic vehicle dynamics. Key parameters in the analytic relationship between steady and non-steady aerodynamics are the following: (1) The time lag occurring before a change of flow conditions can affect the separation-induced aerodynamic loads. (2) The accelerated flow effect, i.e. the pressure gradient lag relative to the static aerodynamic characteristics. (3) The moving wall effect, i.e. the effect of the non-steady boundary condition at the vehicle surface. Using the existing experimental data base an analytic theory is formulated that can predict the separation-induced unsteady aerodynamics if the static characteristics are known from theory or experiment.     

后掠机翼人工转捩最佳粗糙带高度数值预测

介绍了基于当地变量的γ-Re_θ转捩模型,并将该模型应用到后掠机翼的转捩预测和人工转捩最佳粗糙带高度以及人工转捩技术能够模拟的大气飞行雷诺数的确定中。为检验γ-Re_θ转捩模型对后掠机翼转捩的预测能力,对ONERA M6机翼和DLR-F4标模机翼进行了边界层转捩预测,采用结构化网格和有限体积法求解雷诺平均Navier-Stokes(RANS)方程,得到了机翼表面的摩擦阻力系数分布,从而可以得到相应的转捩位置,预测得到的转捩位置与试验结果比较吻合,说明该模型对后掠机翼转捩预测是可信的。最后在DLR-F4标模机翼上表面固定了粗糙带,通过相同的方法得到了转捩位置,从而确定了马赫数为0.785、雷诺数为3.0×10⁶时最佳粗糙带高度为0.11 mm;通过不断增大雷诺数使自由转捩位置不断向前缘移动,验证了人工转捩对大气飞行雷诺数的模拟能力。结果表明,在最佳粗糙带高度为0.11 mm下,可以实现对大气飞行高雷诺数的模拟。     

高超声速滚转阻尼导数数值模拟

采用非定常Ｎａｖｉｅｒ－Ｓｔｏｋｅｓ方程描述物体简谐振动流场,并在Ｅｔｋｉｎ理论下给出绕定轴转动时滚转阻尼导数的计算公式,定常流场的计算采用空间二阶精度的交替方向隐式分解的ＮＮＤ格式,非定常流场的计算采用时、空二阶精度的Ｒｕｎｇｅ－Ｋｕｔｔａ多步格式,采用代数和方法生成物体静、动网格。最后给出高超声速下钝体外形滚转阻尼导数的计算结果,以及滚转力矩系数随瞬时振幅的变化曲线。     

大厚度翼型分离流场的稳定性探讨

基于k-ω的SST两方程湍流模型,求解了雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程获得定常和非定常气动力,耦合翼型弹性振动方程,在时间域内模拟了弹性支撑下的大厚度对称翼型流场及其翼型动态过程,研究结果发现：在所给定的雷诺数条件下,弹性支撑下的大厚度翼型在一定大迎角范围内存在分离流场稳态的转化现象,此结果的意义在于：1）同一基本迎角下的翼型分离涡存在多个稳态流场;2）弹性支撑的翼型在大迎角分离流条件下气动力在物理上本身就存在非唯一性,从一个新的角度解释了大迎角气动力测量中的分散性。     

超/高超声速飞行器动态稳定性导数极快速预测方法

飞行器设计早期阶段需要预测大量工况下的动导数。本文发展了一种面向超/高超声速飞行器的动导数极快速预测方法：首先基于当地流活塞理论，将飞行器进行小幅非定常运动所受到的气动力分为受自由来流引起的无附加扰动项以及受物面变形或运动引起的附加扰动项；通过当地表面斜度法、激波后等熵关系求解物面当地流动参数，进而结合非定常运动规律求出飞行器所受非定常气动力；再采用待定系数法对非定常气动力进行提取、辨识，最终得到超/高超声速飞行器动导数。该方法克服了传统方法对CFD流场参数的依赖和耦合，具有极高的计算效率；同时典型算例验证表明，该方法在超声速、高超声速工况下都能够很好预测动导数变化趋势。将该方法应用于复杂外形飞行器动导数预测，并讨论了与CFD方法的误差来源。本文方法可作为高速飞行器总体设计阶段布局选型的工具。     

非定常气动力对飞机飞行影响的拓扑分析

 根据飞机六自由度运动模型和微分非定常气动力模型, 计算了周期轨道及平衡运动的拓扑结构图,初步研究了非定常气动力对飞机飞行的全局影响, 并通过系统的导算子矩阵根轨迹、时域仿真及其灵敏度分析, 提炼出非定常气动力对飞机飞行影响的初步机理。结果表明, 非定常气动力对飞机平衡运动的振荡不稳影响明显, 可以改变其稳定特性, 延迟Ho pf 分叉的出现。对于稳定的周期运动, 由于增加了系统的阻尼耗散项从而减少了振荡幅度。     

飞机大攻角空间机动气动力建模研究

 准确的气动力模型是大攻角机动仿真与控制等飞行动力学问题研究的基础。针对纵向运动建立的非线性非定常气动力微分方程模型扩展应用于一般空间运动形式,在分析大攻角非定常流动机理和试验数据的基础上,发展了一种多自由度非线性非定常气动力数学模型,并探讨了模型辨识和参数估计问题。用全机构形的大攻角动态风洞试验数据对模型进行的验证表明所发展的气动力模型能够描述大攻角气动力主要的非线性和非定常特性。