国外新型一次性动载火箭技术的进展与发展趋势（下）

二、一次性运载火箭的发展趋势尽管实现可重复使用是航天运载器技术发展的目标，以美国为首的一些航天发达国家也在通过一系列计划推动这一目标的早日实现，但由于可重复使用运载器技术难度大，牵涉的关键技术多，所以近期还无法取代一次性运载火箭。在今后相当长的一段时间内，各国仍会继续重视发展和改进一次性运载火箭，并以其为主执行各类航天发射任务。与此同时，各种型号的一次性运载火箭将在提高运载能力和可靠性的同时，着力降低发射成本。（一）航天发达国家的主流一次性运载火箭仍在纷纷更新换代，大直径、少级数和大运载能力是主…     

可复用运载器技术的发展趋势

可复用运载器代表了未来航天运输技术的发展方向。在世界各航天发达国家和地区中，欧美和日本等都在为从一次性使用火箭时代向可复用运载器时代过渡进行着各种技术准备。美国政府在研制出了部分可重复使用的航天飞机后，还曾开展过空天飞机研制计划及 X－ 33和 X－ 34等可复用运载器技术验证计划，今后 5年里将动用 45亿美元开展“航天发射计划”（ SLI），为第二代可复用运载器的研制工作开路。美国的一些私营企业也提出了多种可复用运载器方案，试图在未来的航天运输市场上抢得先机并有所作为。欧洲正在通过其“未来运载器技术计划”（ …     

国外新型一次性运载火箭技术的进展与发展趋势（上）

新世纪的航天运输将逐步向低成本、高发射率和可重复使用迈进。但在新一代可复用运载器诞生并取代现役航天飞机及各种一次性使用运载火箭之前,一次性运载火箭仍将在相当长的一段时间内继续充当航天发射的主力。目前有许多国家仍在努力发展自己的运载火箭,几个航天大国还在抓紧改进现有型号或研制全新的型号,过去几年中已有几种新型号陆续投入使用。可以肯定,随着参与竞争型号的增多及运载能力的提高,航天商业发射市场上将会出现更加激烈的竞争。     

宇宙神3挑战阿里安火箭霸主地位

新世纪航天将会呈现新的气象,航天运输也不例外。未来的航天运输将逐步向低成本、高发射率和可重复使用迈进。但在新一代可重复使用运载器诞生并取代现有的航天飞机和一次性运载火箭之前,一次性运载火箭仍将在相当长的一段时间内继续充当航天发射的主力。目前有许多国家仍...     

我国航天运输系统60年发展回顾

航天运输系统包括一次性运载火箭、重复使用运载器、轨道转移运载器3个领域,目前一次性运载火箭仍是我国满足进入空间需求的主体。我国运载火箭起步于20世纪60年代,经过半个世纪的发展,共研制了17种运载火箭、9种上面级,具备发射低、中、高不同轨道和不同有效载荷的能力。对我国航天运输系统60年发展历程和主要成就与不足进行了总结。     

欧洲、日本和俄罗斯先进可复用运载器的技术进展

可重复使用的运载器是降低航天运输成本、提高运载能力和发射频度的必由之路，因此受到航天发达国家和地区的重视。美国在可复用运载器方面的研究开发活动起步早，项目多，投资高，并已研制出了可部分重复使用的航天飞机。与此同时，其它航天发达国家和地区着眼于未来航天运输的需求，也在开展各种技术准备工作。本文对欧洲、日本和俄罗斯在可复用运载器方面的技术进展情况进行了综述。     

哥伦比亚号不是终点——可复用运载器：航天运输新境界

2003年2月1日失事的哥伦比亚号是世界上第一架航天飞机，而美国航天飞机尽管尚未达到完全重复使用，却是世界上第一种可重复使用的运载器。自美国航天飞机20世纪80年代初投入使用后，迄今除美国外只有前苏联于1988年进行了一次暴风雪号航天飞机的无人飞行试验。然而，有关可复用运载器的各种设想和研制计划却在各空间大国此起彼伏。可以说，可复用运载器代表了航天运输技术的未来发展方向，     

各国运载火箭介绍：航天飞机（美国）

各国运载火箭介绍：航天飞机（美国）孙广勃６０年代初，美国几乎所有的宇航公司都开展了可重复使用航天运载火箭的研究。这期间的研究、试验与开发活动（如戴纳索尔以及Ｘ系列火箭飞机方案）探讨了可重复使用运载器的技术可行性，为６０年代末可复用航天运载器的研究工作...     

国外先进运载技术创新研究

从1957年前苏联使用东方号运载火箭发射人类第一颗人造卫星至今,世界运载技术的发展已走过了40多年的历史。在此期间,以美国、俄罗斯、欧洲为代表的世界各国和地区先后研制了数十种运载火箭,进行了3000余次发射。运载技术不断发展创新,日益提高,从早期的由地地战略导弹改造的小型运载火箭发展到今天的大型商用运载火箭,运载能力逐步增强,发射成本逐步降低,可靠性逐步提高。目前,世界航天大国竞相发展新一代航天运载工具,多项新计划正在进行之中,多种新型号陆续投入使用,21世纪运载技术将进一步取得巨大发展。21世纪初,我国运载技术的发展也…     

太空雄鹰首飞——纪念航天飞机首次飞行30周年

与苏联走的航天道路不同,从1972年起,美国开始全力研制航天飞机这一可部分重复使用的新型载人航天器,认为它能取代一次性使用的运载火箭和宇宙飞船。 2011年4月12日,不仅是世界第1艘载人飞船上天50周年纪念日,也是世界第1架航天飞机上天30周年纪念日。1981年4月12日世界第1架航天飞机——哥伦比亚号成功地进行了处女航行，从而宣告这种运载能力巨大、乘坐舒适的新型天地往返运输器正式投入使用。     

Summary of medical investigations in the U.S.S.R. manned space missions.

The results of biomedical investigations carried out in the U.S.S.R. manned space missions are discussed. Their basic result is well-documented evidence that man can perform space flights of long duration. The investigations have demonstrated no direct correlation between inflight or postflight physiological reactions of crewmembers and flight duration. In all likelihood, this can be attributed to the fact that special exercises done inflight efficiently prevented adverse effects of weightlessness. However, human reactions to weightlessness need further study. They include negative calcium balance and anemia as well as vestibulo-autonomic disorders shown by crewmembers at early stages of weightlessness. Attention should be given to psychological, social-psychological and ethical problems that may also limit further increase in flight duration.     

ADS-B在美国

美国是“广播式自动相关监视”(ADS-B)技术研究和应用的先行者之一。继1991年,瑞典首次成功利用飞行座舱显示器(CDTI)演示ADS-B功能之后,美国从1992年就开始在芝加哥的O’Hare机场开展ADS-B技术的早期应用研究。进入21世纪,美国首先在阿拉斯加地区通用航空飞机上推广应用ADS-B技术。2002年,美国联邦航空局FAA终于出台了ADS-B数据链发展政策以及支持ADS-B技术发展的规划蓝图。一、美国的AD S-B技术发展规划(一)近期规划:(2002年—2006年)(1)定义ADS-B最初发展阶段的国内技术系统底层结构;(2)允许“袖珍型”(不具备上行广播…     

U.S. biological experiments in space.

Past U.S. space biological experiments in space, using non-human specimens, are discussed and evaluated. Current plans for future experimentation in this field are also given.     

U.S. prebreathe protocol

This paper identifies and describes the prebreathe protocol currently used by the U.S. Space Shuttle Program to provide astronauts the capability to safely perform extravehicular activity. A comparison of planned vs actual prebreathe experience through the STS-37 Mission is also provided.     

Aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems based on the C.E.B.A.S. biotechnology

Most concepts for bioregenerative life support systems are based on edible higher land plants which create some problems with growth and seed generation under space conditions. Animal protein production is mostly neglected because of the tremendous waste management problems with tetrapods under reduced weightlessness. Therefore, the “Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System” (C.E.B.A.S.) was developed which represents an artificial aquatic ecosystem containing aquatic organisms which are adpated at all to “near weightlessness conditions” (fishes Xiphophorus helleri, water snails Biomphalaria glabrata, ammonia oxidizing bacteria and the rootless non-gravitropic edible water plant Ceratophyllum demersum). Basically the C.E.B.A.S. consists of 4 subsystems: a ZOOLOGICASL COMPONENT (animal aquarium), a BOTANICAL COMPONENT (aquatic plant bioreactor), a MICROBIAL COMPONENT (bacteria filter) and an ELECTRONICAL COMPONENT (data acquisition and control unit). Superficially, the function principle appears simple: the plants convert light energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis thus producing biomass and oxygen. The animals and microorganisms use the oxygen for respiration and produce the carbon dioxide which is essential for plant photosynthesis. The ammonia ions excreted by the animals are converted by the bacteria to nitrite and then to nitrate ions which serve as a nitrogen source for the plants. Other essential ions derive from biological degradation of animal waste products and dead organic matter. The C.E.B.A.S. exists in 2 basic versions: the original C.E.B.A.S. with a volume of 150 liters and a self-sustaining standing time of more than 13 month and the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE with a volume of about 8.5 liters. In the latter there is no closed food loop by reasons of available space so that animal food has to be provided via an automated feeder. This device was flown already successfully on the STS-89 and STS-90 spaceshuttle missions and the working hypothesis was verified that aquatic organisms are nearly not affected at all by space conditions, i . e. that the plants exhibited biomass production rates identical to the ground controls and that as well the reproductive, and the immune system as the the embryonic and ontogenic development of the animals remained undisturbed. Currently the C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODLULE is prepared for a third spaceshuttle fligt (STS-107) in spring 2001. Based on the results of the space experiments a series of prototypes of aquatic food production modules for the implementation into BLSS were developed. This paper describes the scientific disposition of the STS-107 experiments and of open and closed aquaculture systems based on another aquatic plant species, the Lemnacean Wolffia arrhiza which is cultured as a vegetable in Southeastern Asia. This plant can be grown in suspension culture and several special bioreactors were developed for this purpose. W. arrhiza reproduces mainly vegetatively by buds but also sexually from time to time and is therefore especially suitable for genetic engineering, too. Therefore it was used, in addition, to optimize the C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE to allow experiments with a duration of 4 month in the International Space Station the basic principle of which will be explained. In the context of aquaculture systems for BLSS the continuous replacement of removed fish biomass is an essential demand. Although fish reproduction seems not to be affected in the short-term space experiments with the C.E.B.A.S. MIMI MODULE a functional and reliable hatchery for the production of siblings under reduced weightlessness is connected with some serious problems. Therefore an automated “reproduction module” for the herbivorous fish Tilapia rendalli was developed as a laboratory prototype. It is concluded that aquatic modules of different degrees of complexity can optimize the productivity of BLSS based on higher land plants and that they offer an unique opportunity for the production of animal protein in lunar or planetary bases.     

DR.Q.SCIENCE QUEST

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A 6 D.O.F. opto-inertial tracker for virtual reality experiments in microgravity.

Gravity plays a role in many different levels of human motor behavior. It dictates the laws of motion of our body and limbs, as well as of the objects in the external world with which we wish to interact. The dynamic interaction of our body with the world is molded within gravity's constraints. The role played by gravity in the perception of visual stimuli and the elaboration of human movement is an active research theme in the field of Neurophysiology. Conditions of microgravity, coupled with techniques from the world of virtual reality, provide a unique opportunity to address these questions concerning the function of the human sensorimotor system. The ability to measure movements of the head and to update in real time the visual scene presented to the subject based on these measurements is a key element in producing a realistic virtual environment. A variety of head-tracking hardware exists on the market today, but none seem particularly well suited to the constraints of working with a space station environment. Nor can any of the existing commercial systems meet the more stringent requirements for physiological experimentation (high accuracy, high resolution, low jitter, low lag) in a wireless configuration. To this end, we have developed and tested a hybrid opto-inertial 6 degree-of-freedom tracker based on existing inertial technology. To confirm that the inertial components and algorithms will function properly, this system was tested in the microgravity conditions of parabolic flight. Here we present the design goals of this tracker, the system configuration and the results of 0g and 1g testing.