Examining the effects of anti-space weaponization arguments in the media: Some experimental findings from Canada

This study examines how political activists are framing the space weaponization debate in Canada and whether their arguments can influence public attitudes and perceptions about the issue. Eighty university students from two undergraduate courses were recruited as participants in a quasi-experiment. One class (n = 38) was exposed to the documentary Masters of Space, an episode of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's program The Nature of Things, and another class (n = 42) served as the control group. Pre-test and post-test questionnaires were used to measure the effects of viewing anti-weaponization arguments in the media, while also controlling for the influence of prior beliefs and background characteristics of participants. Results suggest that visually depicting the use of satellite technology in society can convince viewers that satellites are important to their way of life, but not necessarily to the defense of North America. Framing missile defense as a ‘space weapon in disguise’ also seemed to raise opposition to Canada's participation in continental missile defense. The findings, meanwhile, indicate that viewers respond strongly to the issue of space debris and that mobilizing support for joint military space projects may best be achieved by emphasizing the usefulness of these projects for locating and tracking such debris. In the end, media exposure seemed to help legitimize anti-weaponization arguments based more on rational self-interests than on idealistic beliefs. These findings can have implications for the way space policies are communicated to the public.     

The export of space technology : Prospects and dangers

The export market for space technology, goods and services is still in its infancy, but trends indicate definite economic growth in prospect. Private companies are increasingly keen to find a foothold or increase their share in the ever widening market. National goverments are undertaking a variety of measures to help and encourage them in the export of space technology. Competition for the older US producers is sharpening from foreign firms. Political conflict is arising based on this competition and on the potential dual use of some space technologies for civilian and military purposes. The main Western industrialized countries have recently agreed on common Guidelines to control the export of launcher technology that could be used for delivering nuclear weapons. The ‘Guidelines for Sensitive Missile-Relevant Transfer’ will affect the export of much space technology and equipment.     

Policy perspectives from the UN international conference on near-Earth objects

This Viewpoint, arising from a UN conference on the subject, proposes policies to increase awareness of the (small but serious) threat from near-Earth objects (NEOs) and to provide guidelines for cooperative observation, research and — if necessary — mitigation programmes. They include extending the Outer Space Treaty to take in NEOs and creating an amateur astronomers' observation network. It is recommended that a vigorous exploration programme be maintained, along with research into getting fast, cheap access to low-Earth orbit and into developing long-range rocket technology. Keeping stocks of nuclear weapons as possible means of deflecting incoming NEOs is considered likely to do more harm than good at this time.     

Gathering news from space

Developments in remote-sensing technology have prompted suggestions that the news media could soon make routine use of newsgathering from space. A satellite system dedicated to this purpose (a ‘Mediasat’) could supply critical information. Government policy makers, however, fear that the media's use of such technology could affect national security, foreign relations and personal privacy. This article assesses US government policy on current and future newsgathering from space, and the technical potential for a Mediasat system. The authors raise doubts about the commercial viability of Mediasat, and point out that existing media sources already provide information on news stories. They conclude that concerns over the use of data from space will have to be met on a case-by-case basis as the media gain experience, using the same criteria now applied to balance the right of freedom of information with the need for national security.     

Species and temperature exchange in the atmosphere of “BION-M” spacecraft

On going flights of Foton satellites allow to carry out research in the following domains: effect of space flight and outer space factors such as microgravity, artificial gravity and space radiation on physical processes and biological organisms. Experts from many Russian and foreign scientific institutions participated in the research. Over a period of time from 1973 to 1997 there were launched 11 BION satellites designed by the Central Specialized Design Bureau for carrying out fundamental and applied research in the field of space biology, medicine, radio physics and radiobiology with participation of specialists from the foreign countries.The goal of the present investigation was in developing a numerical simulator aimed at determining gas concentration and temperature fields established inside the scientific module of the spacecraft “Bion-M” and to perform optimization studies, which could meet strong requirements for air quality and temperature range allowable for operation of different biological experiments.     

国外卫星推进技术发展现状与未来20年发展趋势

新形势下航天技术的发展对推进技术提出了更高的要求,无论在技术的广度和深度上都是前所未有的,如15年以上静止轨道卫星和8年以上低轨道卫星对高性能长寿命推进系统的要求、电推进技术的应用、微小卫星轨道保持的应用和深空探测对先进推进技术的依赖等。本文从先进化学推进技术、电推进技术、微推进技术和新概念推进技术4个方面分析了国外卫星推进技术的发展状况,总结了未来20年卫星推进技术的发展趋势,给出了对我国今后技术发展的启示。     

Precursor to an African Space Agency: Commentary on Dr Peter Martinez “Is there a need for an African Space Agency?”

In 2012 a working group was established to formulate the African space policy and strategy which would lead to the establishment of an African Space Agency (ASA). Dr Peter Martinez asserts in his article “Is there a need for an African Space Agency?” [1] that the arguments that have been posited in support of an ASA are flawed; namely the arguments of the existing example of the European Space Agency (ESA), and that an ASA would lead to fostering competition, synergy, industrial development and capacity building. While this viewpoint agrees that all the perfect conditions may not exist at present for the creation of an ASA, it addresses some of the issues raised by Martinez, and proposes ideas to foster intra-regional cooperation.     

Are current and future space technologies favourable to SSPS projects?

This viewpoint looks at the positive and negative prospects for the establishment of Space Solar Power Stations (SSPSs) from the standpoint of the way in which space technology has evolved since the concept was first proposed. While there are pressing arguments for alternatives to today’s energy sources, and technological advances have made construction and maintenance of SSPSs potentially easier and less expensive, it is argued that the general trend towards miniaturization in space, plus the probable difficulty of obtaining frequency allocations for SSPSs, militate against their realization. Further, the increasing militarization of space provides additional competition and could mean that SSPSs will never be launched for fear of becoming an enemy target. Nevertheless, SSPSs could have a future supplying electricity within the space environment itself.     

月球无人采样返回探测器一体化热管理方案

针对我国首个月球无人采样返回探测器"嫦娥五号"所面临的散热难题,在调研国外月球采样返回探测器热控方案的基础上,通过论证提出一种"泵驱小型单相流体回路热总线+水升华器"的一体化热管理方案。该方案能够实现"嫦娥五号"着陆器、上升器热量与热沉的综合管理与利用;同时在国内首次将高适应能力主动热控体系结构应用到深空探测航天器中,推动了我国深空探测航天器热控技术的跨越式发展。     

Is there a need for an African space agency?

Over the past few years, the view has been expressed in some quarters that Africa should establish a continental space agency. Various arguments are advanced for this, but they are generally not compelling and rely mostly on pointing to the existence of other regional space cooperation organisations, or to benefits that are debatable. The article considers these arguments and concludes that there is an insufficient case for the establishment of an African space agency at this point in the development of the space arena in Africa. Instead, greater emphasis should be placed on strengthening nascent national space programmes, fostering intra-regional cooperation and raising the profile of space activities in Africa's national and regional political structures.     

Japan,Ballistic Missile Defence and remilitarisation

Japan's future trajectory in security policy and the extent of deviation from the post-war course of a constrained military stance have been the source of constant academic and policy debate. Japanese policy-makers have maintained that national security policy has shown no fundamental deviation, and that this can be benchmarked against a range of constant anti-militaristic principles. The advent of BMD, however, poses significant questions over whether Japan is continuing to follow a similar security trajectory. This article examines how BMD has challenged four key anti-militaristic principles—the non-exercise of collective self-defence, the non-military use of space, the ban on the export of weapons technology, and strict civilian control of the military—and uses this assessment to judge how BMD is driving remilitarisation. It concludes that BMD's impact is highly significant in transgressing these anti-militaristic principles and is thus indicating a more remilitarised security path for Japan developing now and in the future.     

The eagle eyes the dragon in space—A critique

China's space policy and its purpose have become an increasingly contentious subject. This paper critically examines the claims, made by Ashley Tellis, among others, that China has a space strategy decided and coordinated by the Chinese military and dedicated to defeating superior US power locally in an asymmetrical war, and that it is this military space strategy that drives China's single-minded pursuit of space science and technology and the development of China's space programme. To do so, the paper conducts two investigations: into the declining role of the Chinese military in China's foreign and security policy making and its limited influence in formulating China's grand strategy; and the other into the contingent history of China's two space programs, Shenzhou and Chang'e, which have largely been driven by civilian scientist communities, rather than the military. In so doing, I argue that the claims of China's ‘military space strategy’ are over-imaginative and serve a particular political purpose. The social imaginary of a threatening China produced by the US strategic gaze at China in space, I further argue, has dangerous policy implications.     

运载火箭低温推进剂热管理技术及应用进展分析

运载火箭低温推进剂与外界环境的传热是造成汽化的主要原因。为长期贮存和使用低温推进剂,必须采用综合的热管理技术。首先介绍国内外提出的被动热防护技术和主动制冷技术。前者的主要目的是降低贮箱与外界环境的热量交换强度;后者是通过对贮箱内的热量进行转移,以实现低温推进剂的无损贮存,但只适合已具有良好被动热防护的贮箱。其次,对国外典型低温推进剂实验应用系统进行分析,并初步提出多功能液氢实验平台方案设想,方案中通过CZ-3A号搭载多功能液氢实验平台用于验证空间环境下低温推进剂的综合应用技术。通过对低温推进剂热管理技术的调研和论证,为我国低温推进剂在空间环境下的长期在轨使用提供技术参考。     

航天光学遥感器光学装调技术现状与展望

航天光学遥感器工作于太空中,长期恶劣的空间环境及短暂发射入轨时的状态对光学系统的设计与装调提出了苛刻的要求,确保光学系统在轨像质优异是航天光学遥感器研制的关键技术.文章结合国际上航天光学遥感器的发展需求对光学系统装调技术及发展现状进行了分析、总结,提出了中国后续航天光学遥感器装调与测试技术的突破方向.     

Humans versus robots for space exploration and development

Every few years, the eternally resurgent question of whether humans or robots should be adopted for space exploration is dusted off, with arguments on both sides leading nowhere. I argue that this debate is misplaced—there is a well-defined distribution of tasks across humans and the machine, and this distribution is of an evolutionary nature. This article uses a variety of examples to illustrate where robotic capabilities are most appropriate and where human attributes cannot be dispensed with. It further suggests that, even as robotics and artificial intelligence are becoming more sophisticated, they will not be able to deal with ‘thinking-on-one's-feet’ tasks that require generalisations from past experience. Given the current and perceived status of robotics research, I submit that there will be a critical role for humans in space for the foreseeable future.     

A European view on UNISPACE III follow-up

Preparations for the third UN Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III) were intense. The conference itself was a success. But what forms will the follow-up take? Just reading the 150-page report is an effort in itself. Having played a central part in the preparations and organization, Europe fully appreciates the need to build on the spirit of cooperation which emerged from UNISPACE III. In November 1999, the European States gathered to analyze the results of the conference and to set a course for their future participation in the United Nations Programme on Space Applications (UNPSA), which is mainly done through ESA, and for their participation in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), which is done through coordination among ESA Member States. This article presents the authors’ personal accounts of the results of the European efforts around UNISPACE III and shows how ‘European foreign policy’ can work in international space policy. It also seeks to illustrate Europe's commitment to putting space technology to work for the benefit of development throughout the world.     

Space, security and resilience: Reflections on the debate

The RUSI Space and UK National Security Conference was held in London, 14 June 2011. Alixe Buckerfield de la Roche reports on some of the key themes discussed, including the increasing merger of space and cyber, the growing urgency in calling for development of robust and effective regulatory frameworks for orbital management, and the challenges surrounding national resilience achieved through space situational awareness. At RUSI’s 12th Missile Defence Conference held the same week Secretary General Rasmussen gave an address on NATO’s missile policy—focusing on partnerships and collaboration. His comments intersect aptly with the Space and UK National Security conference themes and are therefore included here.     

The search for extraterrestrial artifacts (SETA)

The rationale for the use of interstellar artifacts by intelligent life in the universe is described. The advantages of using interstellar probes as a means of exploration and communication are presented and shown to be significant enough to counter the time, energy, and technology arguments generally raised against contact via extraterrestrial artifacts. Four classes of artifacts are defined: Those seeking contact, those seeking to avoid contact, those intended to provide a passive technological threshold for detection, and those for which detection is irrelevant. The Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts (SETA) is based on the latter two classes. Under the assumption that an extraterrestrial probe will be interested in life in our solar system, a near-Earth search space is defined. This search space is accessible to us now with ground and satellite observing facilities. The current observational status of SETA is reviewed and contrasted with the achievable detection limits for the different parts of the search space.     

The US national space transportation policy: issues for congress

Below is a summary of what was to be the first in a series of reports produced by the Office of Technology Assessment (now defunct) on policy for the USA's future space transportation technology and industrial base. It examines the Clinton Administration's 1994 National Space Transportation Policy and supporting implementation plans and raises and analyses such issues as conflicts and redundancies within NASA and DoD space transportation development programs; competition and cooperation with foreign launch vehicle and component providers; US government limits on the conversion of long-range missiles to space launchers in the face of Russian activity in this area; and the effectiveness of Administration efforts to include the private sector in space transportation decision making. Some issues not covered in the Policy are also discussed.     

The EU's emergent space diplomacy

Science and technology (S&T) have always been at the heart of the European political construction. This started in the Cold War through a series of pan-European collaborative schemes in a panoply of different scientific fields like molecular biology and nuclear research. However, while most of these early collaborative patterns focused on intra-European cooperation, in the post-Cold War era international S&T relations have evolved to encompass a broader international dimension. The European Union is now building a diverse and robust network of cooperation with non-EU partners to become a centre of gravity in international S&T affairs. This increasing linkage between S&T and foreign policy is particularly explicit in space activities. Even though it is the newest space actor in Europe, the EU is pushing the continent to extend the scope of its partnerships with Russia and China, while at the same time modifying its relations with the traditional European partner, the USA, illustrating therefore the emergence of a distinct “EU space diplomacy”.