Assessment of the efficacy of medical countermeasures in space flight

Changes in body fluids, electrolytes, and muscle mass are manifestations of adaptation to space flight and readaptation to the 1-g environment. The purposes of this paper are to review the current knowledge of biomedical responses to short- and long-duration space missions and to assess the efficacy of countermeasures to 1-g conditioning. Exercise protocols, fluid hydration, dietary and potential pharmacologic measures are evaluated, and directions for future research activities are recommended.     

Human missions to Mars: new psychological challenges and research issues

Human exploratory missions to Mars represent the most exciting future vision of human space flight. With respect to the distance to travel and mission duration, these missions will provide unique psychological challenges that do not compare to any other endeavor humans ever have attempted. The present paper presents outcomes of two recent projects sponsored by the European Space Agency--Humex and Reglisse--where these challenges and risks have been analyzed in some detail, and where concepts for future research have been developed. This presentation involves three steps. At first, it will be shown that our current psychological knowledge derived from orbital spaceflight and analogue environments is not sufficient to assess the specific risks of mission into outer space. Secondly, new psychological challenges of missions to Mars will be identified with respect to three different areas: (1) individual adaptation and performance, (2) crew interactions, and (3) concept and methods of psychological countermeasures. Finally, different options and issues of preparatory psychological research will be discussed.     

Physiology, medicine, long-duration space flight and the NSBRI

The hazards of long-duration space flight are real and unacceptable. In order for humans to participate effectively in long-duration orbital missions or continue the exploration of space, we must first secure the health of the astronaut and the success of such missions by assessing in detail the biomedical risks of space flight and developing countermeasures to these hazards. Acquiring the understanding necessary for building a sound foundation for countermeasure development requires an integrated approach to research in physiology and medicine and a level of cooperative action uncommon in the biomedical sciences. The research program of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) was designed to accomplish just such an integrated research goal, ameliorating or eliminating the biomedical risks of long-duration space flight and enabling safe and productive exploration of space. The fruits of these labors are not limited to the space program. We can also use the gained understanding of the effects and mechanisms of the physiological changes engendered in space and the applied preventive and rehabilitative methods developed to combat these changes to the benefit of those on Earth who are facing similar physiological and psychological difficulties. This paper will discuss the innovative approach the NSBRI has taken to integrated research management and will present some of the successes of this approach.     

Mars scientific investigations as a precursor for human exploration.

In the past two years, NASA has begun to develop and implement plans for investigations on robotic Mars missions which are focused toward returning data critical for planning human missions to Mars. The Mars Surveyor Program 2001 Orbiter and Lander missions will mark the first time that experiments dedicated to preparation for human exploration will be carried out. Investigations on these missions and future missions range from characterization of the physical and chemical environment of Mars, to predicting the response of biology to the Mars environment. Planning for such missions must take into account existing data from previous Mars missions which were not necessarily focused on human exploration preparation. At the same time, plans for near term missions by the international community must be considered to avoid duplication of effort. This paper reviews data requirements for human exploration and applicability of existing data. It will also describe current plans for investigations and place them within the context of related international activities.     

Considerations for development of countermeasures for physiological decrements associated with long-duration space missions

Countermeasures are necessary to offset or minimize the deleterious changes in human physiology resulting from long duration space flight. Exposure to microgravity alters musculoskeletal, neurosensory, and cardiovascular systems with resulting deconditioning that may compromise crew health and performance. Maintaining health and fitness at acceptable levels is critical for preserving performance capabilities required to accomplish specific mission tasks (e.g.—extravehicular activity) and to optimize performance after landing. To enable the goals of the exploration program, NASA is developing a new suite of exercise hardware such as the improved loading device, the SchRED. This presentation will update the status of current countermeasures, correlate hardware advances with improvements in exercise countermeasures, and discuss future activities for safe and productive exploration missions.     

Technology developments needed for future X-ray astronomy missions

X-ray astronomy is in a privileged situation with the successful missions Chandra and XMM-Newton for more than 10 years in orbit, and Astro-H in the building phase. Over the past 10 years ESA, NASA, and YAXA studies have been made of follow-up missions, like Constellation-X, XEUS, IXO, and ATHENA. This presentation will highlight the technological challenges encountered to build X-ray optics and instrumentation for these types of missions. The optics requires an order of magnitude more collecting area (>5 m²) for a few seconds of arc spatial resolution. This drives the focal length of the telescope (∼25 m), and thereby the complexity of the spacecraft. Furthermore new technologies are required to realize such an optic within a reasonable mass. The detectors require significant improvement in field of view (number of pixels), energy resolution, and count rate ability. This tends to be possible by the use of Si-based imaging arrays with a large number of pixels, high detection efficiency, and high count rate ability at one side, and the development of modest imaging arrays of cryogenic sensors with very high energy resolution and good detection efficiency at the other side. The cryogenic detectors require further development of cooling systems based on mechanical coolers, like employed for the 1st time on Planck, and planned for Astro-H. The biggest challenge for the realization of such a mission is however not technical. That challenge is that the realization of this future X-ray astronomy mission will require coordination between scientists and Space Agencies on a Global scale.     

The future of space medicine.

In November 2000, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its partners in the International Space Station (ISS) ushered in a new era of space flight: permanent human presence in low-Earth orbit. As the culmination of the last four decades of human space flight activities. the ISS focuses our attention on what we have learned to date. and what still must be learned before we can embark on future exploration endeavors. Space medicine has been a primary part of our past success in human space flight, and will continue to play a critical role in future ventures. To prepare for the day when crews may leave low-Earth orbit for long-duration exploratory missions, space medicine practitioners must develop a thorough understanding of the effects of microgravity on the human body, as well as ways to limit or prevent them. In order to gain a complete understanding and create the tools and technologies needed to enable successful exploration. space medicine will become even more of a highly collaborative discipline. Future missions will require the partnership of physicians, biomedical scientists, engineers, and mission planners. This paper will examine the future of space medicine as it relates to human space exploration: what is necessary to keep a crew alive in space, how we do it today, how we will accomplish this in the future, and how the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plans to achieve future goals.     

The benefits brought by space—General public versus space agencies perspectives

Space agencies and governments have been long striving to find justification for the budgets allocated to non-commercial space missions. The most frequent justifications were scientific discoveries, technological development as well as national prestige. The current study aims to have a different look at the question “Which are the benefits brought by space?” by investigating/sampling/interrogating the public opinion and identifying the perception and view of the generation that form the bulk of the taxpaying citizens for the immediate future and will be actively financing any future missions. The study focuses on the answers provided to an online survey by an international sample of population. The target individuals are in the age range of 25–44 and are users of social networks. They are either employed or students, but they are not directly involved with the space sector. The survey aims to establish whether the promotional activities of ESA, NASA and other space agencies are aligned with the perceived benefits of this sample population. Is space contributing to what the target people consider important? What could be done to improve/change this perception? How did the public perception evolve? Which are the biggest problems humanity is confronted with today according to the sample population? Could space help addressing these major problems? The paper will firstly present the statistical analysis of the sample answers and the conclusions that can be drawn from them. In a second step it will compare the perceptions and expectations of the public in regards to space with the current space agencies strategies and identify the gaps and discontinuities.     

Orbit selection and its impact on radiation warning architecture for a human mission to Mars

With the recent announcement of the discovery of the possibility of life on Mars, there is renewed interest in Mars missions, perhaps eventually in human missions. Astronauts on such missions are at risk to occasional periods of enhanced high energy particle flux from the sun known as Solar Particle Events. These events can pose a substantial risk to the health of the astronauts and to the on-board electronics. Effective forecast and warning of these events could provide time to take steps to minimize the risk (retreating to a safe haven, shutting down sensitive equipment, etc.) Providing that forecast capability, will require additional monitoring capability. The extent of this architecture is sensitive to the orbit selected for the transfer to and from Mars. This paper looks at the major classes of Mars missions (Conjunction and Opposition) and sub-categories of these classes and draws conclusions on the number of monitoring satellites needed for each, with a goal to reducing total system cost through optimum orbit selection.     

Using Spacelab as a precursor of science operations for the Space Station

For more than 15 years, Spacelab, has provided a laboratory in space for an international array of experiments, facilities, and experimenters. In addition to continuing this important work, Spacelab is now serving as a crucial stepping-stone to the improved science, improved operations, and rapid access to space that will characterize International Space Station. In the Space Station era, science operations will depend primarily on distributed/remote operations that will allow investigators to direct science activities from their universities, facilities, or home bases. Spacelab missions are a crucial part of preparing for these activities, having been used to test, prove, and refine remote operations over several missions. The knowledge gained from preparing these Missions is also playing a crucial role in reducing the time required to put an experiment into orbit, from revolutionizing the processes involved to testing the hardware needed for these more advanced operations. This paper discusses the role of the Spacelab program and the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center- (MSFC-) managed missions in developing and refining remote operations, new hardware and facilities for use on Space Station, and procedures that dramatically reduce preparation time for flight.     

The space life sciences strategy for the 21st century

In the past, space life sciences has focused on gaining an understanding of physiological tolerance to spaceflight, but, for the last 10 years, the focus has evolved to include issues relevant to extended duration missions. In the 21st century, NASA's long-term strategy for the exploration of the solar system will combine the assurance of human health and performance for long periods in space with investigations aimed at searching for traces of life on other planets and acquiring fundamental scientific knowledge of life processes. Implementation of this strategy will involve a variety of disciplines including radiation health, life support, human factors, space physiology and countermeasures, medical care, environmental health, and exobiology. It will use both ground-based and flight research opportunities such as those found in current on-going programs, on Spacelab and unmanned biosatellite flights, and during Space Station Freedom missions.     

Psychological considerations of man in space: problems & solutions

With concrete plans for long duration flight taking form a new impetus is lent to preparing man for this hostile and unnatural environment. Cramped conditions, isolation from family and loved ones, work stress, fear, and incompatibility with fellow crew, are but a few of the problems suffered by astronauts and cosmonauts during their long missions in orbit about the earth.

Although criteria for selection of crew is one aspect of attacking the problem, it has not solved it Notwithstanding good selection, team combination, and counselling before flight, problems have still occurred with unwanted consequences. Incompatibility of team members, far from being the exception, has been frequent. This has been detrímental both physiologically and psychologically for the individual as well as for the operational success and safety of the missions.

Because problems will inevitably occur in future long duration missions, especially when they are of international and multi-cultural nature, the importance of dealing with them is underlined. This paper takes a different approach towards ameliorating these problems, namely that of psychological group training before a mission.     

Principal investigators and project managers: Insights from Discovery

NASA’s Discovery, Explorer, and Mars Scout mission lines have demonstrated over the past 15 years that, with careful planning, flexible management techniques, and a commitment to cost control, small space science missions can be built and launched at a fraction of the price of strategic missions. Many credit management techniques such as co-location, early contracting for long-lead items, and a resistance to scope creep for this, but it is also important to examine what may be the most significant variable in small mission implementation: the roles and the relationship of the principal investigator, responsible to NASA for the success of the mission, and the project manager, responsible for delivering the mission to NASA. This paper reports on a series of 55 oral histories with principal investigators, project managers, co-investigators, system engineers, and senior management from nearly every competitively selected Discovery mission launched to date that discuss the definition and evolution of these roles and share revealing insights from the key players themselves. The paper will show that there are as many ways to define the principal investigator/project manager relationship as there are missions, and that the subtleties in the relationship often provide new management tools not practical in larger missions.     

From Earth's orbit to the outer planets and beyond: Psychological issues in space

Current planning for the first interplanetary expedition to Mars envisions a crew of 6 or 7 people and a mission duration of around 2.5 years. However, this time frame is much less than that expected on expeditions to the outer solar system, where total mission durations of 10 years or more are likely. Although future technological breakthroughs in propulsion systems and space vehicle construction may speed up transit times, for now we must realistically consider the psychological impact of missions lasting for one or more decades.Available information largely deals with on-orbit missions. In research that involved Mir and ISS missions lasting up to 7 months, our group and others have studied the effects of psychological and interpersonal issues on crewmembers and on the crew-ground relationship. We also studied the positive effects of being in space. However, human expeditions to the outer planets and beyond will introduce a number of new psychological and interpersonal stressors that have not been experienced before. There will be unprecedented levels of isolation and monotony, real-time communication with the Earth will not be possible, the crew will have to work autonomously, there will be great dependence on computers and other technical resources located on board, and the Earth will become an insignificant dot in space or will even disappear from view entirely.Strategies for dealing with psychological issues involving missions to the outer solar system and beyond will be considered and discussed, including those related to new technologies being considered for interstellar missions, such as traveling at a significant fraction of the speed of light, putting crewmembers in suspended animation, or creating giant self-contained generation ships of colonists who will not return to Earth.     

Biomedical program of the ALTAIR french russian flight onboard the MIR station

One year after the achievemant of the 2 weeks ANTARES french-russian mission in the MIR station in July 1992, a 22 days ALTAÏR mission with a french cosmonaut has been performed in July 1993, making use of the scientific payload remaining on board. Taking benefit of the analysis of the previous mission, the experimental protocols were adapted to refine scientific objectives and gave to the scientists the opportunity to enhance quantitatively and qualitatively their results. The french biomedical program, conducted in close scientific cooperation with IMBP and associated laboratories, was composed of 8 experiments out of which 2 were new with regards to the ANTARES program. In the field of cardio-vascular physiology and fluid regulation, the experiments: ORTHOSTATISME, DIURESE have been renewed and complemented by the TISSU experiment (proposed by a german scientist) and a real-time tele-assistance program using US echography technic and ground support from the french CADMOS support control center located in Toulouse. With respect to neurosciences objectives, to the experiments VIMINAL (cognitive processes) and ILLUSIONS (study of proprioceptives cues), was added the SYNERGIES experiment to analyse the postural adjustements during movement. The IMMUNOLOGIE experiment carried on and the radiobiological experiment BIODOSE ended.

Adding the results of the 2 missions ANTARES and ALTAÏR, and the data obtained in between onboard with russian cosmonauts, the scientists have received a wealth of physiological data and gained reproducibility and confidence in their results.     

Social and cultural issues during Shuttle/Mir space missions.

A number of interpersonal issues relevant to manned space missions have been identified from the literature. These include crew tension, cohesion, leadership, language and cultural factors, and displacement. Ground-based studies by others and us have clarified some of the parameters of these issues and have indicated ways in which they could be studied during actual space missions. In this paper, we summarize some of our findings related to social and cultural issues from a NASA-funded study conducted during several Shuttle/Mir space missions. We used standardized mood and group climate measures that were completed on a weekly basis by American and Russian crew and mission control subjects who participated in these missions. Our results indicated that American subjects reported more dissatisfaction with their interpersonal environment than their Russian counterparts, especially American astronauts. Mission control personnel were more dysphoric than crewmembers, but both groups were significantly less dysphoric than other work groups on Earth. Countermeasures based on our findings are discussed which can be applied to future multicultural space missions.     

US export controls and Canadian autonomy to collaborate on international space missions

Canada is a space power with unique technical niches that support opportunities for collaboration on space technologies. When U.S.-origin space technologies are involved Canada's ability to collaborate internationally may be conditional on US law and policy. As a result, US export control law can be directly linked to the success or failure of Canadian collaboration. This article examines the strategic impact of U.S. export controls on Canadian autonomy to collaborate on international missions, including multi-use missions. Canadian space export control policy is also examined more broadly with the goal of providing specific policy recommendations that will enhance Canada's future as an international space actor.     

Radiation transport modeling and assessment to better predict radiation exposure, dose, and toxicological effects to human organs on long duration space flights.

NASA is very interested in improving its ability to monitor and forecast the radiation levels that pose a health risk to space-walking astronauts as they construct the International Space Station and astronauts that will participate in long-term and deep-space missions. Human exploratory missions to the moon and Mars within the next quarter century, will expose crews to transient radiation from solar particle events which include high-energy galactic cosmic rays and high-energy protons. Because the radiation levels in space are high and solar activity is presently unpredictable, adequate shielding is needed to minimize the deleterious health effects of exposure to radiation. Today, numerous models have been developed and used to predict radiation exposure. Such a model is the Space Environment Information Systems (SPENVIS) modeling program, developed by the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronautics. SPENVIS, which has been assessed to be an excellent tool in characterizing the radiation environment for microelectronics and investigating orbital debris, is being evaluated for its usefulness with determining the dose and dose-equivalent for human exposure. Thus far. the calculations for dose-depth relations under varying shielding conditions have been in agreement with calculations done using HZETRN and PDOSE, which are well-known and widely used models for characterizing the environments for human exploratory missions. There is disagreement when assessing the impact of secondary radiation particles since SPENVIS does a crude estimation of the secondary radiation particles when calculating LET versus Flux. SPENVIS was used to model dose-depth relations for the blood-forming organs. Radiation sickness and cancer are life-threatening consequences resulting from radiation exposure. In space. exposure to radiation generally includes all of the critical organs. Biological and toxicological impacts have been included for discussion along with alternative risk mitigation methods--shielding and anti-carcinogens.     

Space applications for ionic polymer-metal composite sensors, actuators, and artificial muscles

Ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) are composites of a noble metal, conductive polymer or carbon/graphite, and charged polyelectrolyte membrane. IPMCs have shown considerable progress in producing actuation in electric fields. These composites are also capable of sensing motion by producing a voltage difference when bent by a mechanical force. Work to date has yielded a force greater than 40 times the weight of an IPMC and large bending displacements with very low-input voltages.There is sufficient reason to believe that artificial muscles with viable strength can be produced with these composites. The IPMC, in addition to being resilient and elastic, is also lightweight and has a reaction speed that ranges from 1 microsecond to 1 second. For space missions, devices based on IPMCs will have numerous applications. On planetary surfaces, robotic arms and end effectors, motion-producing motors, actuators, and controllers are just a few examples of devices that can be produced using IPMCs. In this paper, examples of various envisioned space applications of IPMCs will be provided. The impacts of these applications on future space missions will also be discussed.