The tortoise and the tortoise : The new race for space

Until now space activity has been driven by international political competition. But recent events in Eastern Europe have undercut the political incentives for expanded space activity, and meanwhile fiscal constraints, arising for different reasons in the USA, Europe and the USSR, are putting unprecedented pressure on space budgets. In the long term, however, it is likely that a new kind of competition fuelled by economic motives will provide the basis for a more determined and perhaps more stable opening of the space frontier. Dropping out of the space race for short-term reasons could be a costly and irrevocable decision.     

Hermes vehicle

The presence of Europe in the future developments of spatial programs, which are foreseen, for the 1990s and further, needs the availability of vehicles, modules and all related technologies adapted to operational use of low earth orbit station.The manned HERMES vehicle shall be part of the in-orbit infrastructure realized either in the European context or in cooperation between Europe and the United States.The main mission for this vehicle will be to run a shuttle with the station that means transport and change of the crews, its safe return in abort condition and cargo transport of consumable and experimental equipment.Secondary missions could be servicing on automatic platform, making autonomous scientific experiments. Lastly, the vehicle, by means of its on-board propulsion capability, could be used to accomplish in-orbit tow and assembly missions.Studies which are undertaken now about the vehicle are devoted to the aerodynamic shape (research of a compromise between aerothermic and overall fitting), the system (functional architecture, ground and flight configuration); further works dealing with technology are presently on hand in the field of thermal protection, aerodynamics, power generation with a high massic yield.     

Current barriers and factors of success in the diffusion of satellite services in Europe

Satellite services benefit civil society by helping tackle challenges such as climate change, the digital divide, etc. They have the potential to deliver concrete benefits to European society through innovative services supporting economic, societal and environmental policies. Such benefits can trigger increased public support for space in Europe. However, this potential has yet to be achieved. This paper argues that technological bias, the diversity of interests and initiatives among stakeholders and their individual actions do not always serve their collective objective to ensure wide diffusion of satellite services. It draws on theories of diffusion of innovation and on its authors' participatory work with the space and the user communities and at their interface in an effort to help diffuse satellite services within civil society. One of the major causes of insufficient service diffusion is the weakness of the interface between the space and user communities; some of factors that currently contribute to this state of affairs are the space community's over-reliance on publicly financed, technical demonstration projects as solutions to service diffusion; insufficient coordination by public authorities of innovation policies and programmes with other public policies and objectives; and an insufficient integration of satellite services within users' culture, traditional tools and services. The discussion allows for conclusions to be drawn on how the system of stakeholders could function better in order for satellite services to be successfully diffused in Europe.     

Is there really any duplication in Europe''s space activities?

At a time of declining space budgets in Europe, and of a consequent need to make savings, accusations of wasteful duplication—resulting from the large number of national agencies pursuing programmes alongside ESA—are rife, as are calls for the space industry further to consolidate. This viewpoint argues that duplication is not really the issue, however, since most national agencies have become specialists in particular fields. Nor would industry restructuring be straightforward, given the fact that Europe cannot be satisfied with a single source of supply. What is needed is better coordination between space agencies upstream to avoid later duplication, as is now being pursued through ESA's ‘harmonisation process’. The move to create a Network of Centres could also promote worthwhile collective action. These initiatives are more realistic than the technocratic aim of completely restructuring European space.     

两届美国政府的“欧洲导弹防御”方案对比研究

美国现任总统奥巴马已于2009年9月17日宣布了对“欧洲导弹防御系统”计划进行重大调整。简要介绍了美国前任总统布什和现任总统奥巴马的欧洲导弹防御系统方案,并根据美国国会预算局关于“在欧洲部署导弹防御的选择方案报告”的有关情况,从多个方面对美国前任总统布什和现任总统奥巴马的欧洲导弹防御系统方案进行了对比研究。     

European thoughts on the new US defence strategy: A major repositioning in a difficult budgetary context

The USA adopted a new defence strategy in 2012 which responds to the changing geopolitical landscape and straightened economic circumstances. The emphasis is on leaner, more flexible and diversified operations, while priority areas have shifted from Europe to the Asia-Pacific (in acknowledgement of China's growing military might) and the Middle East. This will have consequences for Europe, which is now expected to take a greater share of the strategic burden. The major developments in the strategy – such as eschewing the pursuit of lengthy engagements on more than one front, and using the military to complement diplomatic and economic initiatives – are discussed. Europe is urged to respond by maintaining its national strategic and industrial autonomy, including in access to space and missile defence.     

Enhancing Europe's capabilities in space research and technology: Towards a European Space Board

With the proposed implementation of a European space policy and the prospect of several major undertakings in the space domain the European Union should decide to set up a high-level independent body and confer on it the authority and means to provide expert advice on space-related subjects to its institutions, policy makers and agencies, as well as to the space research community. Although the political and legislative situation in the USA is different from that in Europe, such a body has existed there since 1959 and has proven most useful. The current situation in Europe is analysed and the arguments for setting up such a structure are presented. It is suggested that the foundations for this new advisory structure can be found in the existing European Space Science Committee, the European Science Foundation's expert committee on space research. A structure and remit is proposed for such a body and elements of its mode and means of operations are discussed.     

Space for defence: A European vision

A common European defence policy is still at a very preliminary stage, and although some limited progress has recently been made, it is a politically sensitive issue. In contrast to scientific research or large industrial ventures such as aircraft development, where Europe has moved forward rather well, obstacles to further integration in defence and security matters are numerous. Space systems could be used to facilitate such integration as their duplication is costly and so much remains to be done in Europe in this field. A common European ‘vision’ for the role of space systems in security and defence thus needs to be developed. This article reviews the role of space in security and defence missions, the technology and industrial base Europe needs, and its capability and autonomy in achieving access to space. Space system vulnerability and the means of minimizing it are addressed, including measures to prevent the weaponization of space. The possible role of ESA in support of the European Defence Agency for defence space systems development is identified, along with the need for ad hoc organizations for operational exploitation. Ten recommendations are made that would permit progress at the European level, following the path already successfully achieved in the civilian domain.     

A Franco–German view of Europe's ambition in space for the 21st century

Europe has at last started to integrate the assets of its broad set of actors into a comprehensive European Space Strategy. But will this first approach be ambitious enough to strengthen Europe as a global actor? In this contribution, the individuals responsible for strategy in the French and German space agencies seek an answer to this question. They do so by reviewing the historical background to European space efforts, and its role in shaping present-day activities; setting forth a vision of how Europe should proceed in space, and measuring current progress in drafting a European space strategy against this vision.     

European spaceflight at the crossroads

Plans for Europe's future participation in space development are still under active discussion. This article offers a contribution to the debate, considering how Europe can best fulfil its own objectives. Choice of launch vehicle and its payload, as well as of other tools such as space station, re-entry vehicle, and launch site equipment are analysed. The article also discusses the purposes of space research for Europe, and the costs of a useful programme. A far-reaching European space programme still needs to be drawn up if Europe is not to lose out.     

Improving Africa’s benefit from space applications: The European-African partnership

There is little overview of how space applications are utilized by African actors and how cooperation between Africa and Europe is organized and conducted. This article aims briefly to provide such an overview and concretely to make recommendations for institutional actors in European-African partnerships on the use of space applications for sustainable development. The Africa-EU partnership is analysed from a political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal standpoint and respective policy recommendations are drafted on this basis. No other continent can benefit more from space applications than Africa. It will be partnerships like the one between Europe and Africa that will be crucial for realizing this great potential.     

空间材料质量损失和易挥发可凝物长期预测方法

文章从基本理论及相应试验两方面详细介绍了欧洲 ESA 空间研究技术中心(ESTEC)材料部建立的空间材料质量损失和易挥发可凝物长期预测的方法,并确认此种预测方法具有极高准确度。     

The new international political and strategic context for space policies

For several years there has been substantial growth in the ‘nationalist’ nature of space programmes around the world, traditionally focused on unaligned useful space applications. It seems that China, India, in the future South Korea, Malaysia and others will set themselves objectives of a more political colouring symbolising national pride in their programmes. At the same time, some countries, like Iran, make no attempt to hide their plans to have their own space defence capabilities. The absolute pre-eminence of the USA, Russia and Europe is starting to fade. For emerging countries space resources are becoming an integral component of their strategic position or an asymmetrical capability aimed at weakening the credibility of advantages held by potential rivals. This article examines the new context and the role that various countries are playing in it. It is how space policies should be determined in order to understand their politico-strategic determinants and to highlight their characteristics. Nevertheless, the competitive spirit is not the only possible way. Permanent space infrastructures could also be organised globally, as ‘global public goods’, to contribute to answering questions related to major issues facing humanity.     

What role for Europe within a future global space exploration approach?

Europe is present in robotic exploration though the European Space Agency?s mandatory space science program and the optional Aurora program. In addition some member states are also involved in projects of non-European space faring countries through bilateral co-operations. Europe is also present in human exploration through the ISS utilization program. ESA and some of its member states participate in the activities of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), a club of 14 space agencies working for the elaboration of a global exploration roadmap. Finally, ESA and the European Union have initiated a political approach with the setting up of an international forum so as to elaborate a commonly agreed vision on space exploration at political level.     

Innovation and change? The evolution of Europe's small satellite manufacturers

Since the 1980s a trend has emerged to contain the cost of space missions, which has favored trials in the construction and launch of small satellites. This effort has considerably reduced the cost of the satellites because the construction process uses both traditional components and important technological innovations. There have also been market openings for small satellites, both within the telecommunication sector and for scientific missions and those related to Earth observation. This paper contains the results of a survey of the largest manufacturers of small satellites in Europe and investigates how far (if at all) they have changed the structure of the European space industry. It finds that, through the acquisition of small satellite manufacturers, traditional large companies operating in the field of space in Europe have secured for themselves important technological innovations and market opportunities, while maintaining their oligopolistic position.     

Outer space and cosmopolitics

The two superpowers engaged in power politics on Earth, the USA and the USSR, have devoted great financial and technical efforts to the exploration, control and use of outer space, primarily to gain power-political advantages. This article considers the issue of power politics in outer space. The history and the instruments of ‘cosmopolitical power’ are discussed, as well as the attempts to limit the superpowers' dominance. A united Western Europe is seen to have a major role to play in providing a counterbalance to the concentration of space power.     

Article

This is a slightly edited version of the Executive Summary of a joint report on cooperation in space science produced by the Space Studies Board of the USA National Research Council and the European Space Science Committee of the European Science Foundation. Using analysis of 13 case-study missions it reviews 30 years of joint missions and makes 14 recommendations based on its findings. These include the importance of setting a scientific rationale for each mission and of ensuring that objectives are shared by engineers and others involved in it, the need for independent periodic assessments and that all agreements should specify the scope, expectations and obligations of the respective agencies and relevant partners.The USA and Europe have been cooperating in space science for more than three decades. This history of cooperation has survived significant geopolitical, economic and technological changes, such as the end of the Cold War, the pressure of budget reductions and the increasing focus on economic competition and the global marketplace. Both Europe and the USA have learned from one another and acquired a knowledge base as well as an infrastructure to implement joint missions and research activities. More importantly, the decades of cooperative space research efforts between the USA and Europe have built a community of scientists whose joint scientific exchanges have established a heritage of cooperation on both sides of the Atlantic.The scientific fruits of this heritage are plainly evident in achievements such as a signature for supermassive black holes provided by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST); the first views of the solar atmosphere and corona illuminated by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO); the sharing of expensive research facilities on the International Microgravity Laboratory (IML); and the impressive data on ocean altimetry from the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX-POSEIDON) mission, which is significantly improving our understanding of global ocean circulation.There were no guideposts for the emergence of space science cooperation between Europe and the USA. In the process of introducing new procedures and improvements to facilitate cooperation, missteps occurred, and there were political, economic and scientific losses. This report takes stock of US–European history in cooperative space endeavors, the lessons it has demonstrated and the opportunities it suggests to enhance and improve future US–European cooperative efforts in the sciences conducted in space.     

Towards a European vision for space exploration: Recommendations of the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission

As a result of increasing public and political interest in ‘space’ (i.e. solar system) exploration at the global scale, the Space Advisory Group of the European Commission has evaluated the situation in Europe with regard to its potential to participate in this ambitious global enterprise. Aspects of science, technology, environment and safety, society, spin-offs and international cooperation were all considered. The group concluded that Europe possesses sufficient key technologies and scientific expertise to play a major role in international space exploration and has recommended that the EU take a central role to ensure the success of future European space exploration, not only to give a clear political signal for the way forward but also to ensure an appropriate financial framework. In this way Europe would embrace the spirit of the European Space Policy and contribute to the knowledge-based society by investing significantly in space-based science and technology, thereby playing a strong role in international space exploration.     

Asia in space: The awakening of China and Japan

The increasingly important role of China and Japan in international space activities can be seen as a threat to the two great space-exporting powers, the USA and Europe. China is already a competitor on the satellite launch market, and will soon be able to market satellites which are simpler and cheaper than those offered by Western industry. Japan is making steady progress towards autonomy in all fields of space technology. This article details the space experience of China and Japan. They are following different paths but both will have a strong presence in the cosmos by the year 2000.     

National visions of European space governance: Elements for a new institutional architecture

The governance of space activities in Europe remains an open question, even more so since the adoption of the Lisbon Treaty, and the latest EC document and ESA declaration have revived the debate. This paper considers the strengths and weaknesses of the current governance model, and compares recent French, German, Italian and UK national documents in order to highlight their vision of space governance in Europe. Some elements of agreement emerge but, more interestingly, this comparison highlights their differences, especially with regard to the role of the EU as a supranational actor in the space domain.