Exploration of Mars in the SPICAM-IR experiment onboard the Mars-Express spacecraft: 2. Nadir observations: Simultaneous observations of water vapor and O2 glow in the Martian atmosphere

The SPICAM experiment onboard the Mars-Express spacecraft includes sounding the Martian atmosphere in the ultra-violet (118–320 nm) and near IR (1–1.7 μm) ranges. The infrared spectrometer operates in the range of 1–1.7 μm with a resolution of 3.5 cm^?1 in the mode of nadir observations and solar and stellar occulations. This paper is devoted to analyzing the basic results of nadir observations of the infra-red SPICAM channel during the first Martian year of the instrument operation: from January 2004 to November 2005. One of the primary goals of SPICAM-IR is water vapor monitoring in the atmosphere of Mars in the band of 1.37 μm and ozone abundance determination from the day-time airglow of molecular oxygen O₂(a ¹Δ_g) in the band of 1.27 μm. Simultaneous measurements of these minor constituents of the planet are necessary for understanding photochemical processes in the Martian atmosphere. The degree of their anticorrelation and a comparison with the results of photochemical modeling of the atmosphere will contribute to our knowledge of the Martian atmosphere stability.     

Exploration of Venus with the Venera-15 IR Fourier spectrometer and the Venus Express planetary Fourier spectrometer

The infrared spectrometry of Venus in the range 6–45 μm allows one to sound the middle atmosphere of Venus in the altitude range 55–100 km and its cloud layer. This experiment was carried out onboard the Soviet automatic interplanetary Venera-15 station, where the Fourier spectrometer for this spectral range was installed. The measurements have shown that the main component of the cloud layer at all measured latitudes in the northern hemisphere is concentrated sulfuric acid (75–85%). The vertical profiles of temperature and aerosol were reconstructed in a self-consistent manner: the three-dimensional fields of temperature and zonal wind in the altitude range 55–100 km and aerosol at altitudes 55–70 km have been obtained, as well as vertical SO₂ profiles and H₂O concentration in the upper cloud layer. The solar-related waves at isobaric levels in the fields of temperature, zonal wind, and aerosol were investigated. This experiment has shown the efficiency of the method for investigation of the Venusian atmosphere. The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer has the spectral interval 0.9–45 μm and a spectral resolution of 1.8 cm^?1. It will allow one to sound the middle atmosphere (55–100 km) of Venus and its cloud layer on the dayside, as well as the lower atmosphere and the planetary surface on the night side.     

Observation of Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes in the RELEC space experiment on the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vernov</Emphasis> satellite

The RELEС scientific payload of the Vernov satellite launched on July 8, 2014 includes the DRGE spectrometer of gamma-rays and electrons. This instrument comprises a set of scintillator phoswich-detectors, including four identical X-ray and gamma-ray detector with an energy range of 10 kev to 3 MeV with a total area of ~500 cm² directed to the atmosphere, as well as an electron spectrometer containing three mutually orthogonal detector units with a geometric factor of ~2 cm² sr. The aim of a space experiment with the DRGE instrument is the study of fast phenomena, in particular Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGF) and magnetospheric electron precipitation. In this regard, the instrument provides the transmission of both monitoring data with a time resolution of 1 s, and data in the event-by-event mode, with a recording of the time of detection of each gamma quantum or electron to an accuracy of ~15 μs. This makes it possible to not only conduct a detailed analysis of the variability in the gamma-ray range, but also compare the time profiles with the results of measurements with other RELEC instruments (the detector of optical and ultraviolet flares, radio-frequency and low-frequency analyzers of electromagnetic field parameters), as well as with the data of ground-based facility for thunderstorm activity. This paper presents the first catalog of Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. The criterion for selecting flashes required in order to detect no less than 5 hard quanta in 1 ms by at least two independent detectors. The TGFs included in the catalog have a typical duration of ~400 μs, during which 10–40 gamma-ray quanta were detected. The time profiles, spectral parameters, and geographic position, as well as a result of a comparison with the output data of other Vernov instruments, are presented for each of candidates. The candidate for Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes detected in the near-polar region over Antarctica is discussed.     

Gas-Discharge Anemometer for the Investigation of Flow Dynamics in Rarefied Gas Media

A gas-discharge anemometer is designed for investigating the gas-flow dynamics in wind tunnels, and in experimental and space meteorology. The anemometer allows one to measure simultaneously the magnitude and direction of the gas-flow velocity vector and the gas pressure in the flow. The instrument consists of a gas-discharge chamber, an analyzer of scattered ions, a power supply unit, and a measuring unit. The anemometer weight does not exceed 0.1 kg, and the power consumption does not exceed 0.2 W. The instrument was put through preliminary tests in a wind tunnel that simulated, in particular, the conditions in the boundary layer of the Martian atmosphere and produced a directed gas (air or CO₂) flow whose velocity could be varied from 0.5 to 50 m/s at pressures from 0.3 to 1.3 kPa and temperatures from –120 to +20°C. The anemometer sensitivity is no worse than 100 mV/(m/s). The method of calculating the gas-flow velocity on the basis of the measured ion-current distributions is developed.     

Characteristics of Near-Polar Atmosphere/Thermosphere of Mars at Altitudes of 125–145 km: The Data of a Radio Occultation Experiment onboard the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mars Global Surveyor</Emphasis> Spacecraft

Using data from a radio occultation experiment onboard the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, altitude variations of the scale height of the neutral atmosphere in the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars are analyzed. The averaged altitude gradient of temperature for neutrals in the thermosphere is estimated. The revealed variations of the scale height of the neutral atmosphere at zenith angles of less than 82° indicate that the near polar atmosphere is not isothermal at altitudes of 125–145 km, which experimentally confirms predictions of models of the Martian atmosphere. It is shown that when one approaches the terminator the near polar atmosphere is cooled and the effects of variation of the solar zenith angle modulate the local time effects in both hemispheres.     

Vanguard--a European robotic astrobiology-focussed Mars sub-surface mission proposal

We present a new European Mars mission proposal to build on the UK-led Beagle2 Mars mission and continue its astrobiology-focussed investigation of Mars. The small surface element to be delivered to the Martian surface--Vanguard--is designed to be carried by a Mars Express-type spacecraft bus to Mars and adopts a similar entry, descent and landing system as Beagle2. The surface element comprises a triad of robotic devices--a lander, a micro-rover of the Sojourner class for surface mobility, and three ground-penetrating moles mounted onto the rover for sub-surface penetration to 5 m depth. The major onboard instruments on the rover include a Raman spectrometer/imager, a laser plasma spectrometer, an infrared spectrometer--these laser instruments provide the basis for in situ "remote" sensing of the sub-surface Martian environment within a powerful scientific package. The moles carry the instruments' sensor head array to the sub-surface. The moles are thus required to undergo a one-way trip down the boreholes without the need for recovery of moles or samples, eliminating much of the robotic complexity invoked by such operations.     

Identification of planetary wave patterns associated with ice seasonal sublimation/condensation dynamics in the polar regions of mars,based on IR mapping spectrometer OMEGA onboard <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mars Express</Emphasis>

Channel C of the orbital hyperspectrometer OMEGA onboard Mars Express spacecraft has delivered data on the distribution and seasonal variability of water ice spectral features at 1.25, 1.5, 2.0 μm, based on which one may conclude about the thickness of ice coverage and microstructure of the upper, optically active ice layer on the Martian surface. Data covering polar regions during spring-to-summer periods of both hemispheres have been analyzed. Microstructure of the North polar cap, as well as the residual frost deposits of the seasonal South polar cap, have revealed remarkable zonal variations with regularly located maxima. Based on the comparison with the atmospheric general circulation model results, it has been proposed that these variations result from the impact of mesoscale inertial waves in the circumpolar vortex on water exchange processes between the atmosphere and planetary surface.     

The BOSS and BIOMEX space experiments on the EXPOSE-R2 mission: Endurance of the desert cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis under simulated space vacuum,Martian atmosphere,UVC radiation and temperature extremes.

The proposed space experiments BOSS (Biofilm Organisms Surfing Space) and BIOMEX (BIOlogy and Mars experiment) will take place on the space exposure facility EXPOSE-R2 on the International Space Station (ISS), which is set to be launched in 2014. In BOSS the hypothesis to be tested is that microorganisms grown as biofilms, hence embedded in self-produced extracellular polymeric substances, are more tolerant to space and Martian conditions compared to their planktonic counterparts. Various microbial biofilms have been developed including those obtained from the cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis isolated from hot and cold deserts. The prime objective of BIOMEX is to evaluate to what extent biomolecules are resistant to, and can maintain their stability under, space and Mars-like conditions; therefore a variety of pigments and cell components are under investigation to establish a biosignature data base; e.g. a Raman spectral library to be used for extraterrestrial life biosignatures. The secondary objective of BIOMEX is to investigate the endurance of extremophiles, focusing on their interactions with Lunar and Martian mineral analogues. Ground-based studies are currently being carried out in the framework of EVTs (Experiment Verification Tests) by exposing selected organisms to space and Martian simulations. Results on a desert strain of Chroococcidiopsis obtained from the first set of EVT, e.g. space vacuum, Mars atmosphere, UVC radiation, temperature cycles and extremes, suggested that dried biofilms exhibited an enhanced survival compared to planktonic lifestyle. Moreover the protection provided by a Martian mineral analogue (S-MRS) to the sub-cellular integrities of Chroococcidiopsis against UVC radiation supports the endurance of this cyanobacterium under extraterrestrial conditions and its relevance in the development of life detection strategies.     

凝视成像型光谱仪特点及其小行星探测应用前景（英文）

Compared with traditional ground asteroid observations, deep space exploration is an important way to explore and comprehensively understand the characteristics of asteroids. Imaging spectrometer integrates morphological measurement and spectral measurement, and has the ability to acquire image and spectral data simultaneously. By combining morphometry and spectrometry, it is possible to achieve efficient identification and quantitative analysis of the chemical components of the exploration target, and has the strong advantage in the field of asteroid exploration. This paper analyzes the principle of the staring imaging spectrometer and the technological progress in various countries. Based on the requirements of light, small payloads and the space characteristics of spectroscopic devices, the application of staring imaging spectrometer is discussed. Then, this paper introduces the conceptual design of an acousto-optic staring imaging spectrometer, combined with the technical characteristics of its area array stare frame imaging and fast electronic control spectrum selection. An experimental verification is carried out, which provides a reference for the feasibility of this type of instrument in asteroid exploration.     

Determination of vibrational CO2 distributions in thermodynamically-nonequilibrated rarefied flows by use of radiational characteristics in the 15 μm band

A method for determination of the vibrational distributions and populations of individual vibrational levels of vibrationally-nonequilibrated carbon dioxide in bend-stretch manifold and asymmetric stretching mode was developed and substantiated. The method is based on the measurements of integrated radiation intensity in the wide spectral intervals of the 15 μm CO₂ band and total emissivities of its appropriate Q-branches. Computations of radiation intensities and emissivities in P and R-branches were performed by using vibrational-rotational band models and in Q-branches by the direct “line-by-line” integration.It was shown that vibrational temperature of CO₂ asymmetric stretching mode may be determined from the measurements of integrated radiation intensity of the 15 μm band. The populations of individual levels of the bend-stretch manifold may be obtained from the measurements of total emissivities of some Q-branches of the 15 μm band.The procedure of the CO₂ lower vibrational levels populations determination under the conditions typical of 18 μm and 9–11 μm CO₂ laser cavities is described.     

Fast measurements of parameters of the Solar Wind using the BMSW instrument

Design of the plasma spectrometer BMSW (Fast Monitor of the Solar Wind, possessing high temporal resolution) is described in the paper, as well as its characteristics and modes of operation. Some examples of measurements of various properties of the solar wind, made with this instrument installed onboard the high-apogee satellite Spektr-R, are presented.     

火星及其环境

火星环境类似于地球,而探索其生命存在是重大的科学任务。在火星探测中,对火星及其环境的了解与研究是重要的任务目标,事关探测任务的成功实施。文章对国外火星探测已发布的成果进行收集和整理,其中包含大量的相关数据。这些知识和数据是火星探测任务设计的输入条件,可为我国火星探测计划的制定提供参考依据。     

Conceptual study and key technology development for Mars Aeroflyby sample collection

Conceptual study of Mars Aeroflyby Sample Collection (MASC) is conducted as a part of the next Mars exploration mission currently entertained in Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. In the mission scenario, an atmospheric entry vehicle is flown into the Martian atmosphere, collects the Martian dust particles as well as atmospheric gases during the guided hypersonic flight, exits the Martian atmosphere, and is inserted into a parking orbit from which a return system departs for the earth to deliver the dust and gas samples. In order to accomplish a controlled flight and a successful orbit insertion, aeroassist orbit transfer technologies are introduced into the guidance and control system. System analysis is conducted to assess the feasibility and to make a conceptual design, finding that the MASC system is feasible at the minimum system mass of 600 kg approximately. The aerogel, which is one of the candidates for the dust sample collector, is assessed by arcjet heating tests to examine its behavior when exposed to high-temperature gases, as well as by particle impingement tests to evaluate its dust capturing capability.     

Experiment on the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vernov</Emphasis> satellite: Transient energetic processes in the Earth’s atmosphere and magnetosphere. Part I: Description of the experiment

The program of physical studies on the Vernov satellite launched on July 8, 2014 into a polar (640 × 830 km) solar-synchronous orbit with an inclination of 98.4° is presented. We described the complex of scientific equipment on this satellite in detail, including multidirectional gamma-ray detectors, electron spectrometers, red and ultra-violet detectors, and wave probes. The experiment on the Vernov satellite is mainly aimed at a comprehensive study of the processes of generation of transient phenomena in the optical and gamma-ray ranges in the Earth’s atmosphere (such as high-altitude breakdown on runaway relativistic electrons), the study of the action on the atmosphere of electrons precipitated from the radiation belts, and low- and high-frequency electromagnetic waves of both space and atmospheric origin.     

Design and testing of a roto-translational shutter mechanism for planetary operation

This work describes the design and testing of a shutter mechanism for a miniaturized infrared spectrometer developed for the ESA ExoMars Pasteur mission. Unlike most usual cover mechanisms, the conceived one provides a roto-translational motion. This feature allows the sealing of the interferometer main entrance window from dust contamination, in addition to the usual function of shuttering the instrument field of view. Although this characteristic is strongly desired because it avoids dust deposition and optics contamination while the instrument is not operating, it makes the mechanism design significantly more complex. Moreover, challenging design constraints were faced: the mass budget allowed for no more than 30 g allocation, the expected working thermal range extended down to −80 °C and high vibration levels with an acceleration peak of 670 m/s² were predicted during Mars landing. To complete the picture, the mechanism cover was required to provide also a calibration target for the 2–25 μm spectral range of the spectrometer. The resulting system is made by a calibrating/shutter cover moved by a purposely designed out of plane cams system which provides the desired motion. A mechanism mockup was assembled and successfully tested in the predicted thermal and mechanical environments.     

Remnant magnetic fields of Mars and their interaction with the solar wind

This work presents a review of studies of the Martian magnetic fields during the early Soviet missions to Mars in 1971–1974, which never approached Mars by closer than 1000 km before the experiment with the Magnetometer/Electronic Reflectometer (MAG/ER) on board the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, which could descend to altitudes of 80–100 km. At present, the experiment with the magnetometer (MAG) onboard the American MAVEN spacecraft adds new data, but the map of distribution of remnant magnetic fields of Mars and the picture of their interaction with the solar wind are already formed and, at its core, obviously, will not be revised. Thus, it would be very instructive to consider the following in detail: (a) what is already known regarding the features and distribution of remnant magnetic fields on Mars; (b) how they control the interaction of solar wind with a weakly magnetized planet (Mars); and (c) what is its distinction from another nonmagnetized planet (Venus).     

Self-propagating high-temperature reactions for the fabrication of Lunar and Martian physical assets

The development of a new process potentially useful for future manned Lunar and/or Martian space missions in the framework of the so-called ISRU (In-Situ Resource Utilization) and ISFR (In-Situ Fabrication and Repair) concepts is described and discussed in this work. This process involves the fabrication of physical assets by self-propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) for construction applications in Lunar and Martian environments starting from different Lunar or Martian regolith simulants and aluminum, as reducing agent. In addition, although Moon and Mars already contain ilmenite (FeTiO₃) and iron oxides, respectively, the latter ones are also added to the initial mixtures to promote suitable SHS reactions. A complete scheme for the fabrication of physical assets to be used as protection against solar rays, solar wind and meteoroids, where all required stages are indicated, is finally proposed in the framework of a recently filed patent.     

Automated payload and instruments for astrobiology research developed and studied by German medium-sized space industry in cooperation with European academia

For more than a decade Kayser-Threde, a medium-sized enterprise of the German space industry, has been involved in astrobiology research in partnership with a variety of scientific institutes from all over Europe. Previous projects include exobiology research platforms in low Earth orbit on retrievable carriers and onboard the Space Station. More recently, exobiology payloads for in situ experimentation on Mars have been studied by Kayser-Threde under ESA contracts, specifically the ExoMars Pasteur Payload. These studies included work on a sample preparation and distribution systems for Martian rock/regolith samples, instrument concepts such as Raman spectroscopy and a Life Marker Chip, advanced microscope systems as well as robotic tools for astrobiology missions. The status of the funded technical studies and major results are presented. The reported industrial work was funded by ESA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR).