CAST激光驱动微小飞片及其超高速撞击效应研究进展

激光驱动飞片技术(LDFT)在模拟微米级空间碎片对航天器的超高速撞击效应方面具有独特的优势。文章全面介绍了北京卫星环境工程研究所在激光驱动飞片技术与微米级空间碎片超高速撞击效应地面模拟研究中取得的若干进展,包括激光驱动飞片的理论计算、超高速飞片的稳定发射技术、超高速飞片速度瞬态测量技术、航天器外露表面的超高速撞击特性、超高速撞击累积损伤评价方法,以及微米级空间碎片超高速撞击防护技术探索等研究。同时,展望了激光驱动飞片技术以及微米级空间碎片累积撞击实验研究的发展方向。     

Shock compression of liquid hydrogen in various experimental geometries

In connection with the use of cryogenic liquids in high-speed gas dynamics and high-pressure physics, shock-wave processes in liquid hydrogen were investigated under plane, cylindrical and hemispherical loading.The plane loading of liquid hydrogen consisted of a multicyclic, nearly isentropic compression. A transducer employing a contact electrical effect was used to record this multicyclic compression process between a rigid wall and a flyer, resulting in a sequence of shock steps of decreasing amplitude, whose integrated action is equivalent to the isentropic compression of liquid hydrogen up to 500 kbar.The cylindrical loading was generated by detonating a high-explosive charge enclosing a cylindrical cavity along its axis that was filled with liquid hydrogen. Under these conditions shock velocities up to 13.7 km/sec were recorded, and pressure in the shock-compressed hydrogen reached 90 kbar. The formation of a boundary layer and expansion of the cylindrical cavity limited further pressure increases in the column of compressed liquid and lead to a decrease in the flow velocity. The observed increase in detonation velocity is associated with the influence of the channel wave on the detonation regime in the neighboring explosive layers.Under hemispherical loading, an increase in the converging shock velocity from 6 to 20 km/sec was recorded. The final pressure reached 210 kbar, and the total specific energy exceeded 200 kJ/g. During the release of the shock-compressed hydrogen into air at 0.1 torr, shock waves with velocities exceeding 50 km/sec were obtained.     

Al/Mg阻抗梯度材料超高速撞击机理数值仿真研究

文章采用数值仿真方法研究了Al/Mg阻抗梯度材料在超高速撞击下的响应过程,分析了冲击波在阻抗梯度材料中的传播规律,计算了撞击过程中的能量耗散情况,并与弹丸撞击铝合金靶的结果进行了比较。研究结果表明,相对于铝合金材料,Al/Mg阻抗梯度材料：1）延长了冲击波的传播时间,使峰值压力脉冲的比冲量提升了30%～50%;2）提高了塑性功和内能转化量,使不可逆功增加了10%。由此证明阻抗梯度材料的防护性能优于铝合金。     

利用等离子体加速器发射超高速 微小空间碎片的研究

文章介绍了国内外微小空间碎片超高速撞击地面模拟实验研究的现状,描述了国内等离子体微小空间碎片加速器的研制进展和初步实验结果,分析了该加速器在空间碎片防护研究工作中的应用。在初步调试阶段,在系统设计满负荷储能6%和35%的条件下,分别将100 ?m和200 ?m的玻璃微粒加速至5.5 km/s和9.3 km/s。利用该加速器可以模拟研究10～1 000 ?m的微小空间碎片对卫星功能材料的撞击损伤特性,可以加速模拟研究卫星关键部件或分系统在大量微小空间碎片撞击下的失效机理和失效模式,为卫星防护微小空间碎片的设计提供技术支持。该加速器还能为国内发展星载空间微小碎片探测仪器的设计和标定提供模拟实验条件。     

航天器舷窗玻璃超高速撞击损伤与M/OD撞击风险评估

用北京卫星环境工程研究所的18mm口径二级轻气炮(TLGG)和20 J激光驱动微小飞片装置(LDFF-20)对用作航天器舷窗玻璃的熔融石英玻璃的超高速撞击损伤特性进行了实验研究和分析.其中,TLGG发射的球形铝弹丸直径分别为1 mm和3 mm,速度2～6.5 km/s;LDFF-20发射的圆柱形飞片厚度7 μm,直径1 mm,速度1～8.3 km/s.撞击结果为:对12 mm厚的熔融石英玻璃,直径为3mm的弹丸甚至在2.8 km/s的低速下就将其穿透,而直径为1 mm的弹丸在6.5km/s的高速下没有穿透,这说明弹丸直径对撞击损伤特性有很强的影响;LDFF-20发射的微小飞片的撞击仅在玻璃表面产生很浅的凹坑,没有裂纹产生,但微小飞片的累积撞击损伤明显地降低了玻璃的透光性.实验初步获得了侵彻深度PC、侵彻直径D1与弹丸撞击速度Vp、弹丸质量Mp之间的经验关系.依据实验结果和目前的微流星体/空间碎片(M/OD)环境工程模型,建议对于高度为400 km、轨道倾角42°、寿命为3年的典型航天器,其舷窗玻璃的临界安全(非穿透)厚度至少为12mm.     

不同密度弹丸对水冰的超高速撞击成坑实验

为了研究冰冻天体表面撞击坑的形成与演化，开展了水冰的超高速撞击成坑实验。使用二级轻气炮发射1.0 mm直径的球形弹丸，以3 km/s、5 km/s和7 km/s速度对圆柱状冰块进行撞击。弹丸材料包括聚碳酸酯和不锈钢两种，冰块温度为253 K。实验观察到了不同弹丸和不同速度条件下，冰块中撞击坑的形貌特征。对撞击坑直径、深度和剖面形状进行了测量，并与文献中铝弹丸对水冰的撞击坑进行了比较分析。获得了水冰撞击坑特征随撞击参数的变化规律，结果表明：撞击坑直径和深度的主导机制不同，坑深主要由弹丸侵彻作用形成，而坑径主要由冰块的剥落所致；坑深比坑径具有更强的对于弹丸密度的依赖性，高密度弹丸撞击坑直径具有比低密度弹丸更强的对于撞击速度的依赖性；撞击坑体积与撞击能量成正比，高密度弹丸形成的撞击坑直径表现出“能量缩比”行为，而低密度弹丸形成的撞击坑直径表现出“动量缩比”行为。     

球形弹丸超高速斜撞击薄板的碎片云和侵彻特征仿真分析

低地球轨道航天器易受到微流星体及空间碎片的超高速撞击。相较于正撞击,斜撞击现象更加普遍、更具研究价值。文章采用Autodyn-3D数值模拟软件,利用光滑粒子流体动力学（smooth particle hydrodynamics, SPH）方法,模拟Al2017-T4球形弹丸超高速斜撞击Al2A12薄板的过程,开展弹丸撞击速度为3～6 km/s、撞击角度为0°～60°时的撞击特征仿真分析。结果表明:撞击角度对碎片云形貌与几何尺寸,以及穿孔大小和形状特征有显著影响;当撞击角度为30°～45°时会发生滑弹反溅现象,造成弹丸侵彻能力下降。研究结果可为超高速撞击防护结构的设计和改进提供支持。     

梯度波纹夹层防护结构超高速碰撞特性仿真研究

文章基于空间碎片被动防护需求,提出了一种梯度波纹夹层防护结构,并对其超高速碰撞过程及形成碎片云的特性进行了仿真分析。仿真结果表明,相比于Whipple结构,在梯度波纹夹层结构中冲击波的卸载方式更复杂,更有利于空间碎片的破碎;碰撞速度在5~20 km/s时,碎片云的膨胀半角先增大后减小;夹层结构中前置波纹板对撞击动能中不可逆功的吸收量和吸收占比最大。研究结果对空间碎片被动防护结构的设计具有一定的参考价值。     

激光驱动飞片系统模拟空间碎片超高速撞击

文章介绍了北京卫星环境工程研究所采用激光驱动飞片系统将厚度5μm的铝质飞片发射到8.3 km/s.该驱动系统采用调Q钕玻璃激光,脉宽15 ns,最大能量达到20 J.针对热控材料、舷窗玻璃及OSR等外部表面功能材料开展了超高速撞击实验研究,取得初步研究结果.实验结果表明激光驱动飞片技术可很好地用于模拟微流星/空间碎片超高速撞击效应研究.     

Small carry-on impactor of Hayabusa2 mission

A Japanese spacecraft, Hayabusa2, the successor of Hayabusa, which came back from the Asteroid Itokawa with sample materials after its 7-year-interplanetary journeys, is a current mission of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and scheduled to be launched in 2014. Although its design basically follows Hayabusa, some new components are planned to be equipped in Hayabusa2 mission. A Small Carry-on Impactor (SCI), a small explosive device, is one of the challenges that were not seen with Hayabusa. An important scientific objective of Hayabusa2 is to investigate chemical and physical properties of the internal materials and structures. SCI creates an artificial crater on the surface of the asteroid and the mother spacecraft observes the crater and tries to get sample materials. High kinetic energy is required to creating a meaningful crater. The SCI would become complicated and heavy if the traditional acceleration devices like thrusters and rocket motors are used to hit the asteroid because the acceleration distance is quite large and guidance system is necessary. In order to make the system simpler, a technology of special type of shaped charge is used for the acceleration of the impact head. By using this technology, it becomes possible to accelerate the impact head very quickly and to hit the asteroid without guidance system. However, the impact operation should be complicated because SCI uses powerful explosive and it scatters high speed debris at the detonation. This paper presents the overview of our new small carry-on impact system and the impact operation of Hayabusa2 mission.     

Cylindrical heterogeneous detonation waves

Further experimental studies of blast wave initiated cylindrical heterogeneous (liquid fuel drops, gas oxidizer) detonation waves are described. A pie-shaped shock tube, used for these studies, was altered in certain ways so as to improve the modeling of cylindrical waves. These modifications, along with some operational aspects, are briefly discussed. The breech of the facility, where the blast wave is generated by an explosive, became distorted with usage. Results are presented which show that lower detonation velocities are realized with the damaged breech (other conditions being the same). A photographic and pressure switch wave time of arrival study was made to ascertain the wave shape. Photographs are shown which show that the waves, blast as well as detonation, are close to cylindrical. However, in some cases there is appreciable distortion of the wave front by debris ahead of the wave. Presumably this debris comes from the blasting cap used to ignite the condensed explosive. A series of experiments was conducted using kerosene drops of 388 μm diameter dispersed in air through use of a large number of hypodermic needles. Radial fuel void regions were established by cutting off the fuel flow to a number of needles. Preliminary results relating to the effect of the size of the cloud gap on detonation velocity, quenching, and the initiator energy levels required for detonation are discussed.     

Debris dispersion effect in N-shape configuration

Spacecraft shields play an important role in shielding against the impact of space debris. Increasing the dispersion degree of the debris produced by the impact of the space debris on the bumper of configuration is able to lower the concentration of debris impacting on the rear plate and thus to reduce the risk of debris perforating the rear plate. In order to improve the dispersion degree, the N-shape configuration is proposed and studied by hypervelocity impact test with the velocity of 4.80 km/s and numerical simulation with the velocities ranging from 3.0 km/s to 7.0 km/s. As a comparison, the distribution of debris impacting on the rear plate is also investigated for the parallel triple-wall configuration with the same areal density. It is found that this degree is increased in the N-shape configuration due to the oblique plate, and therefore the risk of debris perforating the rear plate is reduced compared to the case of parallel triple-wall configuration.     

圆柱体弹丸超高速斜撞击薄板的碎片云特征仿真分析

为研究圆柱体弹丸超高速撞击薄板的碎片云特征,基于仿真软件AUTODYN-3D的光滑粒子流体动力学（SPH）方法,模拟圆柱体弹丸不同长径比、不同攻角条件下超高速撞击薄板的过程。设圆柱体弹丸撞击速度为5 km/s,长径比分别为0.5、1.0、2.0、4.0,攻角为15°～75°,数值模拟结果分析表明:圆柱体弹丸超高速斜撞击薄板形成的碎片云中,大部分是小质量碎片;大碎片的质量和动能占比较大,是造成后墙损伤的主要原因。同时,当弹丸长径比为0.5和1.0时,15°攻角下的碎片云侵彻能力最弱;长径比为2.0和4.0时,75°攻角下的碎片云侵彻能力最弱。研究结果可为航天器防护结构设计优化提供参考。     

Hypervelocity impact testing of advanced materials and structures for micrometeoroid and orbital debris shielding

A series of 66 hypervelocity impact experiments have been performed to assess the potential of various materials (aluminium, titanium, copper, stainless steel, nickel, nickel/chromium, reticulated vitreous carbon, silver, ceramic, aramid, ceramic glass, and carbon fibre) and structures (monolithic plates, open-cell foam, flexible fabrics, rigid meshes) for micrometeoroid and orbital debris (MMOD) shielding. Arranged in various single-, double-, and triple-bumper configurations, screening tests were performed with 0.3175 cm diameter Al2017-T4 spherical projectiles at nominally 6.8 km/s and normal incidence. The top performing shields were identified through target damage assessments and their respective weight. The top performing candidate shield at the screening test condition was found to be a double-bumper configuration with a 0.25 mm thick Al3003 outer bumper, 6.35 mm thick 40 PPI aluminium foam inner bumper, and 1.016 mm thick Al2024-T3 rear wall (equal spacing between bumpers and rear wall). In general, double-bumper candidates with aluminium plate outer bumpers and foam inner bumpers were consistently found to be amongst the top performers. For this impact condition, potential weight savings of at least 47% over conventional all-aluminium Whipple shields are possible by utilizing the investigated materials and structures. The results of this study identify materials and structures of interest for further, more in-depth, impact investigations.     

Debris area distribution of spacecraft under hypervelocity impact

Cross-sectional area is an important parameter for spacecraft breakup debris as it is the directly measured data in space observation. It is significant for observing and analysing the spacecraft breakup event to accurately modelling the area distribution of the breakup debris. In this paper, experimental study has been performed on debris area distribution characteristics of spacecraft under hypervelocity impact. The tests are carried out at the ballistic ranges of CARDC. Aluminium projectiles are launched to normally impact the simulated spacecrafts at about 3.0 km/s. The simulated spacecrafts are made up of aluminium plates, filled with some simulated electronics boxes, each of which was installed with a circuit board. “Soft-catch” devices are used to recover the breakup fragments. The test results show that: 1) the relationship between the cross-sectional area and the characteristic length of debris, which can be obtained in the logarithmic coordinates by linear fitting, represents the debris shape characteristic in a certain extent; 2) the area-to-mass ratios of fragments show normal distributions in the logarithmic coordinates; 3) debris made of different materials can be distinguished by different peaks on the distribution curves; 4) the area-to-mass ratio distributions can be expressed by a linear superimposition of several normal functions which represent the main materials of the spacecraft.     

Location and sampling of aqueous and hydrothermal deposits in martian impact craters

Do large craters on Mars represent sites that contain aqueous and hydrothermal deposits that provide clues to astrobiological processes? Are these materials available for sampling in large craters? Several lines of evidence strongly support the exploration of large impact craters to study deposits important for astrobiology. The great depth of impact craters, up to several kilometers relative to the surrounding terrain, can allow the breaching of local aquifers, providing a source of water for lakes and hydrothermal systems. Craters can also be filled with water from outflow channels and valley networks to form large lakes with accompanying sedimentation. Impact melt and uplifted basement heat sources in craters > 50 km in diameter should be sufficient to drive substantial hydrothermal activity and keep crater lakes from freezing for thousands of years, even under cold climatic conditions. Fluid flow in hydrothermal systems is focused at the edges of large planar impact melt sheets, suggesting that the edge of the melt sheets will have experienced substantial hydrothermal alteration and mineral deposition. Hydrothermal deposits, fine-grained lacustrine sediments, and playa evaporite deposits may preserve evidence for biogeochemical processes that occurred in the aquifers and craters. Therefore, large craters may represent giant Petri dishes for culturing preexisting life on Mars and promoting biogeochemical processes. Landing sites must be identified in craters where access to the buried lacustrine sediments and impact melt deposits is provided by processes such as erosion from outflow channels, faulting, aeolian erosion, or excavation by later superimposed cratering events. Very recent gully formation and small impacts within craters may allow surface sampling of organic materials exposed only recently to the harsh oxidizing surface environment.     

纳米铝粉在复合推进剂中的应用

考察了不同类型纳米铝粉的能量性能及热氧化特性。结果表明,纳米铝粉的活性铝含量低于普通铝粉,随活性铝含量的降低,纳米铝粉的燃烧热值降低;纳米铝粉呈现出与普通铝粉截然不同的热氧化特性。同时,研究了纳米铝粉对复合推进剂的燃烧性能与能量性能的影响,结果表明,纳米铝粉可提高推进剂的燃速和降低压强指数,有利于改善推进剂的燃烧性能,但纳米铝粉的低活性铝含量导致推进剂的爆热值降低。     

Impacts and evolution: future prospects

The discipline of astrobiology includes the dynamics of biological evolution. One of the major ways that the cosmos influences life is through the catastrophic environmental disruptions caused when comets and asteroids collide with a planet. We now recognize that such impacts have caused mass extinctions and played a major role in determining the evolution of life on Earth. The time-averaged impact flux as a function of projectile energy can be derived from lunar cratering statistics as well as the current population of near Earth asteroids (NEAs). Effects of impacts of various energies can be modeled, using data from historic impacts [such as the Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) impactor 65 million years ago] and the observed 1994 bombardment of Jupiter by fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. It is of particular interest to find from such models that the terrestrial environment is highly vulnerable to perturbation from impacts, so that even such a small event as the KT impact (by a projectile 10-15 km in diameter) can lead to a mass extinction. Similar considerations allow us to model the effects of still smaller (and much more likely) impacts, down to the size of the asteroid that exploded over Tunguska in 1908 (energy approximately 10 megatons). Combining the impact flux with estimates of environmental and ecological effects reveals that the greatest contemporary hazard is associated with impactors near 1 million megatons in energy (approximately 2 km in diameter for an asteroid). The current impact hazard is significant relative to other natural hazards, and arguments can be developed to illuminate a variety of public policy issues. The first priority in any plan for defense against impactors is to survey the population of Earth-crossing NEAs and project their orbits forward in time. This is the purpose of the Spaceguard Survey, which has already found more than half of the NEAs >1 km in diameter. If there is an NEA on a collision course with Earth, it can be discovered and the impact predicted with decades or more of warning. It is then possible to consider how to deflect or disrupt the NEA. Unlike other natural hazards, the impact risk can be largely eliminated, given sufficient advanced knowledge to take action against the threatening projectile.     

偶氮呋咱和氧化偶氮呋咱的合成及表征

介绍了高能材料二氨基偶氮呋咱(DAAF)、二氨基氧化偶氮呋咱(DAOAF)及二硝基氧化偶氮呋咱(DNOAF)的合成。其中,采用新型氧化剂制备DAAF,得率提高至65.60%。通过DSC-TG、元素分析、IR、1H NMR和MS等方法,对其结构进行了鉴定,并进行了常规的感度测试。感度数据表明,无氢炸药DNOAF的摩擦感度较大,与C-12相当,而DAAF和DAOAF为低感度炸药。     

两种物态方程在超高速碰撞数值模拟中的比较

材料在超高速碰撞下将发生熔化甚至气化相变。为反映超高速碰撞中材料相变带来的影响,文章采用GRAY三相物态方程与Tillotson物态方程,对超高速碰撞进行数值模拟对比研究。研究表明:当碰撞速度在3 km/s以下时,除了靶板穿孔直径外,两种物态方程所给出的碎片云的结果基本一致;但当碰撞速度在3 km/s以上时,两种物态方程给出的数值模拟结果有较大差异,这说明在超高速碰撞中相变的产生对碎片云形状参数有较大影响。