基于多源影像的探测器月面着陆点定位与精度验证

探测器月面着陆点高精度定位是探测器着陆的重要技术环节，也是地外天体探测器开展各项工作的重要前提.本文基于多源图像数据，利用图像特征匹配和多重覆盖影像定位技术，设计了探测器月面着陆点高精度定位方法，并使用嫦娥三号任务相关影像进行了定位实验与精度验证.在高精度图像匹配和几何变换的基础上，降落相机序列影像间的匹配精度达到子像素，LRO NAC影像与中分辨率降落图像的匹配精度优于1pixel，最终解算的嫦娥三号探测器着陆点坐标为（44.1196°N，19.5148°W）.本文方法综合利用了多源图像数据，不完全依靠着陆区DOM底图的制图精度，是对影像与DOM底图配准定位结果的进一步精化，在未来的月球着陆探测任务中具有应用价值.      

Miniaturized laser-induced plasma spectrometry for planetary in situ analysis – The case for Jupiter’s moon Europa

Jupiter’s icy moon Europa is one of most promising places in our Solar System where possible extraterrestrial life forms could exist either in the past or even presently. The Europa Lander mission, an exciting part of the international Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM/Laplace), considers in situ planetary exploration of the moon. The distance of Europa from the Earth and the Sun asks for autonomous analytical tools that maximize the scientific return at minimal resources, demanding new experimental concepts. We propose a novel instrument, based on the atomic spectroscopy of laser generated plasmas for the elemental analysis of Europa’s surface materials as far as it is in reach of the lander for example by a robotic arm or a mole, or just onboard the lander. The technique of laser-induced plasma spectrometry provides quantitative elemental analysis of all major and many trace elements. It is a fast technique, i.e. an analysis can be performed in a few seconds, which can be applied to many different types of material such as ice, dust or rocks and it does not require any sample preparation. The sensitivity is in the range of tens of ppm and high lateral resolution, down to 50 μm, is feasible. In addition, it provides the potential of depth profiling, up to 2 mm in rock material and up to a few cm in more transparent icy matrices. Key components of the instrument are presently developed in Germany for planetary in situ missions. This development program is accompanied by an in-depth methodical investigation of this technique under planetary environmental conditions.     

Titan’s new pole: Implications for the Huygens entry and descent trajectory and landing coordinates

The European Space Agency’s Huygens probe separated from the NASA Cassini spacecraft on 25 December 2004, after having been attached for a 7-year interplanetary journey and three orbits around Saturn. The probe reached the predefined NASA/ESA interface point on 14 January 2005 at 09:05:52.523 (UTC). It performed a successful entry and descent sequence and softly landed on Titan’s surface on the same day at 11:38:10.77 (UTC) with a speed of about 4.54 m/s. Since the publication of the official project entry and descent trajectory reconstruction effort by the Descent Trajectory Working Group in 2007 (referred to as DTWG#4) various other efforts have been performed and published. This paper presents an overview of the most relevant reconstructions and compares their methodologies and results. Furthermore, the results of a new reconstruction effort (DTWG#5) are presented, which is based on the same methodology as DTWG#4 but takes into account new estimates of Titan’s pole coordinates which were derived from radar images of different Cassini Titan flybys. It can be shown that the primary effect can be observed in the meridional direction which is represented by a stark southward shift of the trajectory by about 0.3 deg. A much smaller effect is seen in the zonal direction (i.e., less than 0.01 deg in the west to east direction). The revised probe landing coordinates are 192.335 deg W and 10.573 deg S. A comparison of these coordinates with results of recent landing site investigations using visual and radar images of the Cassini VIMS instrument shows excellent agreement of the two independently derived landing coordinates, i.e., longitude and latitude residuals of respectively 0.035 deg and 0.007 deg.     

月球着陆器着陆安全分析方法

月球着陆器软着陆地点选择及安全着陆实现是探月二期的关键问题.采用不考虑着陆器着陆过程中发动机控制、着陆姿态控制和动力学性能,在计算机上依据低精度月面数据和已有月面典型地形特征分布/形状模型仿真生成高精度着陆区域;根据着陆器的结构尺寸和着陆安全要求对每个安全参数进行计算、比较、判断得到单次着陆安全性,利用蒙特卡洛方法计算多次在仿真地形上的着陆安全概率.试验结果表明:采用这种方法时,着陆器的结构尺寸相同分析结果才有意义.在计算机上仿真生成着陆区域、设置着陆器结构尺寸和安全参数,使其可以用于地面系统的仿真实验,也可在月面软着陆过程中实时分析选定区域的着陆安全概率.     

Identification and characterization of science-rich landing sites for lunar lander missions using integrated remote sensing observations

Despite more than 52 years of lunar exploration, a wide range of first-order scientific questions remain about the Moon’s formation, temporal evolution, and current surface and interior properties. Addressing many of these questions requires obtaining new in situ analyses or return of lunar surface or shallow subsurface samples, and hence rely on the selection of optimal landing sites. Here, we present an approach to optimize science-rich lunar landing site selection studies based on the integration of remote sensing observations. Currently available remote sensing data, as well as features of interest published in the recent literature, were integrated in a Geographic Information System. This numerical database contains geographic information about all these findings, which can be consulted and used to simultaneously display multiple features and parameters of interest. To illustrate our approach, we identified the optimal landing sites to address the two top priorities (or goals) relative to Concept 3 of the National Research Council of the National Academies (2007), namely to ‘Determine the extent and composition of the primary feldspathic crust, (ur)KREEP layer, and other products of differentiation’ and to ‘Inventory the variety, age, distribution and origin of lunar rock types’. We review site requirements and propose possible landing sites for both these goals. We identified 29 sites that best fulfill both these goals and compare them with the landing sites of planned future lunar lander missions. Finally, we detail two of these science-rich sites (Aristarchus and Theophilus craters) which are particularly accessible through their location on the nearside.     

基于Unity3D的月面复杂地形场景构建及模拟驾驶系统

为了验证未来复杂月面地形操控技术方案,本文基于Unity3D物理引擎对月表模型、月球物理环境以及月面光照环境进行了模拟,设计并开发了一套用于模拟月球自主进行着陆点选址以及在线航天器着陆轨迹规划的模拟系统。模拟系统的工作过程包含了：基于面阵雷达与立体相机信息融合的局部月表重建,基于3D重建结果的月表地形着陆代价的快速评估与自动着陆选址,以及使登陆器能够到达选址目标的最优燃料消耗着陆运动规划,实现了月球着陆器短距离自主选址着陆的模拟系统构建,同时也从仿真的角度初步验证了“地形重建-地形评估-自主选址-软着陆”这一自主着陆过程的可行性。     

一种基于LIDAR的精确月球软着陆目标点选定方法

研究了月球探测器不设悬停阶段的精确软着陆运动中实时目标着陆点的自主选定方法．其过程包括着陆器运动补偿、数字高程图（DEM）的生成、障碍识别和最优安全着陆点搜索4个步骤．采用LIDAR敏感器,由经过运动补偿得到的斜距数据生成DEM,给出一种月面地形坡度和粗糙度的定义,根据安全着陆区的判据进行障碍识别,最后设计中心螺旋式搜索方法对探测器最优安全着陆点进行搜索选定．通过仿真验证了本文方法的有效性和优越性．     

A comparison of different regression models for downscaling Landsat and MODIS land surface temperature images over heterogeneous landscape

Remotely sensed high spatial resolution thermal images are required for various applications in natural resource management. At present, availability of high spatial resolution (<200 m) thermal images are limited. The temporal resolution of such images is also low. Whereas, coarser spatial resolution (∼1000 m) thermal images with high revisiting capability (∼1 day) are freely available. To bridge this gap, present study attempts to downscale coarser spatial resolution thermal image to finer spatial resolution using relationships between land surface temperature (LST) and vegetation indices over a heterogeneous landscape of India. Five regression based models namely (i) Disaggregation of Radiometric Temperature (DisTrad), (ii) Temperature Sharpening (TsHARP), (iii) TsHARP with local variant, (iv) Least median square regression downscaling (LMS_DS) and (v) Pace regression downscaling (PR_DS) are applied to downscale LST of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Terra MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) images. All the five models are first evaluated on Landsat image aggregated to 960 m resolution and downscaled to 480 m and 240 m resolution. The downscale accuracy is achieved using LMS_DS and PR_DS models at 240 m resolution at 0.61 °C and 0.75 °C respectively. MODIS data downscaled from 1000 m to 250 m spatial resolution results root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.43 °C and 1.62 °C for LMS_DS and PR_DS models, respectively. The LMS_DS model is less sensitive to outliers in heterogeneous landscape and provides higher accuracy when compared to other models. Downscaling model is found to be suitable for agricultural and vegetated landscapes up to a spatial resolution of 250 m but not applicable to water bodies, dry river bed sand sandy open areas.     

Methods and measurements to assess physical and geochemical conditions at the surface of Europa

An international effort dedicated to the science exploration of Jupiter system planned by ESA and NASA in the beginning of the next decade includes in-depth science investigation of Europa. In parallel to EJSM (Europa-Jupiter System Mission) Russia plans a Laplace-Europa Lander mission, which will include another orbiter and the surface element: Europa Lander. In-situ methods on the lander provide the only direct way to assess environmental conditions, and to perform the search for signatures of life. A critical advantage of such in situ analysis is the possibility to enhance concentration and detection limits and to provide ground truth for orbital measurements. The science mission of the lander is biological, geophysical, chemical, and environmental characterizations of the Europa surface. This review is dedicated to methods and strategies of geophysical and environmental measurements to be performed at the surface of Europa, and their significance for the biological assessment, basing on the concept of a relatively large softly landed module, allowing to probe a shallow subsurface. Many of the discussed methods were presented on the workshop “Europa Lander: Science Goals and Experiments” held in Moscow in February 2009. Methods and instruments are grouped into geophysical package, means of access to the subsurface, methods of chemical and structural characterization, and methods to assess physical conditions on the surface.     

基于蒙特卡罗法的月球探测器着陆稳定性分析

为了验证月球探测器的软着陆性能,建立了月球探测器着陆过程多体动力学仿真分析模型.由于探测器着陆地点及初始着陆条件的不确定性,采用蒙特卡罗法对探测器的着陆稳定性进行了研究.为了提高蒙特卡罗模拟的效率,采用了基于均值估计相对误差的蒙特卡罗模拟终止准则,从而在保证精度的前提下减少计算成本.通过着陆仿真试验,获得了探测器在给定坡度的月面上着陆时,各着陆性能参数的分布均值、方差及相应的置信区间等统计学结果,并计算了探测器安全着陆的可靠度.     

基于多工况的新型着陆器软着陆性能优化

以新型腿式着陆器为研究对象,建立其刚柔耦合动力学分析模型,实现着陆器软着陆过程的仿真。通过仿真计算,确定着陆器最易翻倒、底面最易与星球表面岩石碰撞、主体承受最大碰撞力的3组恶劣着陆工况。分析着陆器缓冲机构构型选取设计变量,基于仿真得到的3组恶劣工况,应用第二代非劣排序遗传算法(NSGA-Ⅱ)实现着陆器软着陆性能的优化,优化目标为增强着陆器抗翻倒能力、降低着陆器底面与星球表面岩石碰撞的可能性、降低着陆器主体最大受力值。将优化所得参数代入模型重新进行仿真,着陆器不再发生翻倒,着陆平台底面与星球表面最小距离提高4.2%,主体最大受力值降低12.1%。     

嫦娥四号任务科学目标和有效载荷配置

嫦娥四号探测器由中继星、着陆器和巡视器组成.其科学目标为:月基低频射电天文观测研究,月球背面巡视区浅层结构探测研究以及月球背面巡视区形貌与矿物组分探测研究.共配置6台有效载荷设备,其中3台载荷设备配置在着陆器上,分别为降落相机、地形地貌相机和低频射电谱仪,其余3台配置在巡视器上,分别为全景相机、测月雷达和红外成像光谱仪.本文主要论述了嫦娥四号任务的科学目标、着陆区概况、有效载荷配置及系统设计、各有效载荷任务和主要技术指标等.      

In situ analysis of Europa ices by short-range melting probes

A key aspect for understanding the astrobiological potential of planets and moons in the Solar system is the analysis of material embedded in or underneath icy layers on the surface. In particular in case of the icy crust of Jupiters moon Europa such investigation would be of greatest interest. For a Europa lander to be launched in the 2020–2030 timeframe, we propose to use a simplified instrumented melting probe which is able to access and sample depths of a few meters without the necessity of heavy and complicated drilling equipment.     

Beagle 2: a proposed exobiology lander for ESA's 2003 Mars Express mission.

The aim of the proposed Beagle 2 small lander for ESA's 2003 Mars Express mission is to search for organic material on and below the surface of Mars and to study the inorganic chemistry and mineralogy of the landing site. The lander will have a total mass of 60kg including entry, descent, and landing system. Experiments will be deployed on the surface using a robotic arm. It will use a mechanical mole and grinder to obtain samples from below the surface, under rocks, and inside rocks. Sample analysis by a mass spectrometer will include isotopic analysis. An optical microscope, an X-ray spectrometer and a Mossbauer spectrometer will conduct in-situ rock studies.     

Correlation between the cosmic noise absorption calculated from the SARINET data and the energetic particles measured by MEPED: Simultaneous observations over SAMA region

The cosmic noise absorption is presented in terms of two-dimensional images obtained from the imaging riometers operated at the Southern Space Observatory (geographic coordinate: 29.4° S, 53.1° W), in São Martinho da Serra, Brazil, Concepcion (geographic coordinate: 36.5° S, 73.0° W) and Punta Arenas (geographic coordinate: 53.0° S, 70.5° W) in Chile, which belong to the South American Riometer Network and are located at the central and periphery regions of the South American Magnetic Anomaly. Correlations are performed between the maximum cosmic noise absorption observed at these stations and the energetic electron flux in two energy channels (>30 and >300 keV) and the proton flux in three energy channels (80–240, 800–2500 and >6900 keV) as measured by the Medium Energy Proton and Electron Detector, during a moderate geomagnetic storm that occurred on September 3, 2008. The results show high correlations between the cosmic noise absorption detected at São Martinho da Serra and the flux of protons with energy between 80 and 240 keV, and the flux of electrons with energies higher than 300 keV, while an additional ionization at Concepcion was correlated with electrons of energies higher than 30 keV. The cosmic noise absorption detected at Punta Arenas was probably caused by the increase of the protons flux with energy between 80 and 240 keV.     

Analog environments for a Europa lander mission

This paper reviews the utility of analog environments in preparations for a Europa lander mission. Such analogs are useful in the demonstration and rehearsal of engineering functions such as sample acquisition from an icy surface, as well as in the exercise of the scientific protocols needed to identify organic, inorganic and possible biological impurities in ice. Particular attention is drawn to Antarctic and Arctic analog sites where progress in these latter areas has been significant in recent years.     

Deep reinforcement learning for six degree-of-freedom planetary landing

This work develops a deep reinforcement learning based approach for Six Degree-of-Freedom (DOF) planetary powered descent and landing. Future Mars missions will require advanced guidance, navigation, and control algorithms for the powered descent phase to target specific surface locations and achieve pinpoint accuracy (landing error ellipse <5 m radius). This requires both a navigation system capable of estimating the lander’s state in real-time and a guidance and control system that can map the estimated lander state to a commanded thrust for each lander engine. In this paper, we present a novel integrated guidance and control algorithm designed by applying the principles of reinforcement learning theory. The latter is used to learn a policy mapping the lander’s estimated state directly to a commanded thrust for each engine, resulting in accurate and almost fuel-optimal trajectories over a realistic deployment ellipse. Specifically, we use proximal policy optimization, a policy gradient method, to learn the policy. Another contribution of this paper is the use of different discount rates for terminal and shaping rewards, which significantly enhances optimization performance. We present simulation results demonstrating the guidance and control system’s performance in a 6-DOF simulation environment and demonstrate robustness to noise and system parameter uncertainty.     

嫦娥四号着陆器月面工作遮挡应对方案研究

嫦娥四号着陆于月球背面南极 艾特肯盆地内，着陆区周围复杂地形导致测控和通信遮挡风险。针对这一问题，开展了着陆区的测控、光照遮挡分析，提出利用轨道控制策略的精细化设计来提高着陆点精度、优化月面工作程序和增加自主控制功能的设计方法,全方面降低嫦娥四号着陆器在月球背面着陆区的生存风险。该方法已通过嫦娥四号着陆器在轨验证，可以为其他深空探测任务提供参考和借鉴。     

Penetration testing for the Optical Probe for Regolith Analysis (OPRA)

The Optical Probe for Regolith Analysis (OPRA) is a spike-shaped subsurface analytical probe that will be delivered to a planet, asteroid, or cometary body by a lander and/or rover. OPRA will be pushed down into the subsurface to record near infrared spectra as a function of depth down to maximum of 50 cm. Therefore, knowledge of the required penetration force to specific depths can be helpful in estimating the length of the probe. Test probes covering the anticipated diameter (2.5, 1.9, 1.2 and 0.9 cm diameter) and tip angle (T.A. = 30°, 60°, 90° and 120°) of OPRA were inserted mechanically into dry playground sand. The results showed that tip angle does not have a major effect, while probe diameter and density of the regolith are the most important parameters. Increasing probe diameter from 0.9 to 1.9 cm (i.e. a factor of 2) leads to an increase in penetration force from 200 to 1000 N (i.e. a factor of 5) at 20 cm depth. An increase in bulk density (B.D.) from 1550 to 1700 kg m⁻³ leads to an increase in penetration force from 10 to 200 N at 20 cm depth. Bearing capacity theory was used to explain the downward movement of the penetrometer through regolith and showed good agreement with the experimental results. This model was then used to take into account the effect of gravity on other planetary bodies. We observed a good agreement between the theoretical model and results from penetration testings on the Moon by the Apollo missions. Since the maximum allowed force for penetration is the weight of the lander/rover on their targeted planetary surface, our results put a strong constraint on the maximum reachable depth without endangering the whole mission.