Piloted operations at a near-Earth object (NEO)

In late 2006, NASA's Constellation Program sponsored a study to examine the feasibility of sending a piloted Orion spacecraft to a near-Earth object. NEOs are asteroids or comets that have perihelion distances less than or equal to 1.3 astronomical units, and can have orbits that cross that of the Earth. Therefore, the most suitable targets for the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) are those NEOs in heliocentric orbits similar to Earth's (i.e. low inclination and low eccentricity). One of the significant advantages of this type of mission is that it strengthens and validates the foundational infrastructure of the United States Space Exploration Policy and is highly complementary to NASA's planned lunar sortie and outpost missions circa 2020. A human expedition to a NEO would not only underline the broad utility of the Orion CEV and Ares launch systems, but would also be the first human expedition to an interplanetary body beyond the Earth–Moon system. These deep space operations will present unique challenges not present in lunar missions for the onboard crew, spacecraft systems, and mission control team. Executing several piloted NEO missions will enable NASA to gain crucial deep space operational experience, which will be necessary prerequisites for the eventual human missions to Mars.Our NEO team will present and discuss the following:

• •new mission trajectories and concepts;
• •operational command and control considerations;
• •expected science, operational, resource utilization, and impact mitigation returns; and
• •continued exploration momentum and future Mars exploration benefits.

     

Piloted operations at a near-Earth object (NEO)

In late 2006, NASA's Constellation Program sponsored a study to examine the feasibility of sending a piloted Orion spacecraft to a near-Earth object. NEOs are asteroids or comets that have perihelion distances less than or equal to 1.3 astronomical units, and can have orbits that cross that of the Earth. Therefore, the most suitable targets for the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) are those NEOs in heliocentric orbits similar to Earth's (i.e. low inclination and low eccentricity). One of the significant advantages of this type of mission is that it strengthens and validates the foundational infrastructure of the United States Space Exploration Policy and is highly complementary to NASA's planned lunar sortie and outpost missions circa 2020. A human expedition to a NEO would not only underline the broad utility of the Orion CEV and Ares launch systems, but would also be the first human expedition to an interplanetary body beyond the Earth–Moon system. These deep space operations will present unique challenges not present in lunar missions for the onboard crew, spacecraft systems, and mission control team. Executing several piloted NEO missions will enable NASA to gain crucial deep space operational experience, which will be necessary prerequisites for the eventual human missions to Mars.Our NEO team will present and discuss the following:

• new mission trajectories and concepts;

• operational command and control considerations;

• expected science, operational, resource utilization, and impact mitigation returns; and

• continued exploration momentum and future Mars exploration benefits.

RPS strategies to enable NASA''s next decade robotic Mars missions

NASA's proposed roadmap for robotic Mars exploration over the next decade is influenced by science goals, technology needs and budgetary considerations. These requirements could introduce potential changes to the succession of missions, resulting in both technology feed forward and heritage. For long duration robotic surface missions at locations, where solar power generation is not feasible or limited, Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) could be considered. Thus, RPSs could provide enabling power technologies for some of these missions, covering a power range from 10s of milliwatts to potentially a kilowatt or even higher. Currently, NASA and DoE with their industry partners are developing two RPSs, both generating about 110 W(e) at BOL. These systems will be made available as early as 2009. The Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG)—with static power conversion—was down-selected as a potential power source for the MSL mission. Development of small-RPSs is in a planning stage by NASA and DoE; potentially targeting both the 10s of milliwatts and 10s of watts power ranges. If developed, Radioisotope Heat Unit (RHU) based systems—generating 10s to 100s of milliwatts—could power small adjunct elements on larger missions, while the GPHS module-based systems—each generating 10s of watts—could be stacked to provide the required power levels on MER class surface assets. MMRTGs and Stirling Radioisotope Generators (SRGs) could power MSL class or larger missions. Advanced Radioisotope Power Systems (ARPS) with higher specific powers and increased power conversion efficiencies could enhance or even enable missions towards the second half of the next decade. This study examines the available power system options and power selection strategies in line with the proposed mission lineup, and identifies the benefits and utility of the various options for each of the next decade launch opportunities.     

Ultralight deployable booms for solar sails and other large gossamer structures in space

Future solar sail spacecraft which do not need any rocket motors and propellants are a promising option for long-term exploration missions in the solar system. However, they will require ultralight reflective foils and deployable booms which will allow for the unfolding of huge sails. The achievement of an acceptable ratio of reflective sail area and structural mass, which results in a still small, but significant acceleration under the photon pressure of sunlight, is extremely challenging. The same challenging deployment technique is required for the unfolding of large reflector membranes or antennas (gossamer structures). The key elements are the booms which must be stowable in a very small envelope before they reach their destination in space. Such booms were developed by DLR and have been successfully tested under zero-g-conditions during a parabolic flight campaign in February 2009. It could be convincingly demonstrated that the unfolding process is both controllable and reproducible. The booms consisted of two co-bonded omega-shaped carbonfiber half shells with 0.1 mm wall thickness each and had a weight of only 62 g per meter. Two different deployment technologies were tested, one based upon an inflatable 12 μm thick polymer hose inside the boom, the other one using an electromechanical uncoiling device at the tip of each boom. In the latter case, the uncoiling devices will radially fly away from the spacecraft, such that they become “expendable deployment mechanisms” and their mass does not count any more for the spacecraft mass that needs to be accelerated or actively controlled.     

Hypothetical flora and fauna of Venus

Hypothetical habitability of some of extrasolar planets is a fundamental question of science. Some of exoplanets possess physical conditions close to those of Venus. Therefore, the planet Venus, with its dense and hot (735 K) oxygen-free atmosphere of CO₂, having a high pressure of 9.2 MPa at the surface, can be a natural laboratory for this kind of studies. The only existing data on the planet׳s surface are still the results obtained by the Soviet VENERA landers in the 1970s and 1980s. The TV experiments of Venera-9 and 10 (October, 1975) and Venera-13 and 14 (March, 1982) delivered 41 panoramas of Venus surface (or their fragments). There have not been any similar missions to Venus in the subsequent 39 and 32 years. In the absence of new landing missions to Venus, the VENERA panoramas have been re-processed. The results of these missions are studied anew. A dozen of relatively large objects, from a decimeter to half a meter in size, with an unusual morphology have been found which moved very slowly or changed slightly their shape. Their emergence by chance could hardly be explained by noise. Certain unusual findings that have similar structure were found in different areas of the planet. This paper presents the last results obtained of a search for hypothetical flora and fauna of Venus.     

NEOs as stepping stones to Mars and main-belt asteroids

Human interplanetary missions are constrained by the problem of astronaut exposure to galactic cosmic radiation. This paper surveys the existing on-line near-Earth object (NEO) data base in an effort to identify NEOs that cross both Earth's ad Mars’ orbits and could be used as cosmic ray shields by interplanetary voyagers. The search concentrated on low-inclination Mars-crossing NEOs that approach Earth, Mars, and main-belt asteroids in the 2020–2100 time frame. Both outbound and return transfers were searched for. Several candidates for Earth–Mars, Mars–Earth, and Earth–Vesta transfers have been found from the very incomplete August 2008 data base. Other aspects of this interplanetary transfer option are considered.     

Dose estimates in a lunar shelter with regolith shielding

Beyond the Earth's atmosphere, galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) and solar energetic particles (SEPs) are a significant hazard to both manned and robotic missions. For long human missions on the lunar surface (months to a year) a radiation shelter is needed for dose mitigation and emergency protection in case of solar events. This paper investigates the interaction of source protons of solar events like those of February 1956 that emitted many fewer particles with energies up to 1000 MeV and of the October 1989 event of lower protons energy but higher fluence, with the lunar regolith and aluminum shielding of a lunar shelter. The shelter is 5 m in diameter and has a footprint of 5×8 m and a 10 cm thick aluminum support structure, however, actual thickness could be much smaller (～1–2 cm) depending on the weight of the regolith shielding piled on top. The regolith is shown to be slightly more effective than aluminum. Thus, the current results are still applicable for a thinner aluminum structure and increased equivalent (or same mass) thickness of the regolith. The shielding thicknesses to reduce the dose solely due to solar protons in the lunar shelter below those recommended by NASA to astronauts for 30 day-operation in space (250 mSv) and for radiation workers (50 mSv) are determined and compared. The relative attenuation of incident solar protons with regolith shielding and the dose estimates inside the shelter are calculated for center seeking, planar, and isotropic incidence of the source protons. With the center seeking incidence, the dose estimates are the highest, followed by those with isotropic incidence, and the lowest are those with the planar incidence.     

Probabilistic assessment of radiation risk for astronauts in space missions

Accurate estimations of the health risks to astronauts due to space radiation exposure are necessary for future lunar and Mars missions. Space radiation consists of solar particle events (SPEs), comprised largely of medium energy protons (less than several hundred MeV); and galactic cosmic rays (GCR), which include high-energy protons and heavy ions. While the frequency distribution of SPEs depends strongly upon the phase within the solar activity cycle, the individual SPE occurrences themselves are random in nature. A solar modulation model has been developed for the temporal characterization of the GCR environment, which is represented by the deceleration potential, ?. The risk of radiation exposure to astronauts as well as to hardware from SPEs during extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) or in lightly shielded vehicles is a major concern for radiation protection. To support the probabilistic risk assessment for EVAs, which could be up to 15% of crew time² on lunar missions, we estimated the probability of SPE occurrence as a function of solar cycle phase using a non-homogeneous Poisson model [1] to fit the historical database of measurements of protons with energy>30 MeV, Φ₃₀. The resultant organ doses and dose equivalents, as well as effective whole body doses, for acute and cancer risk estimations are analyzed for a conceptual habitat module and for a lunar rover during space missions of defined durations. This probabilistic approach to radiation risk assessment from SPE and GCR is in support of mission design and operational planning for future manned space exploration missions.     

MESSENGER's use of solar sailing for cost and risk reduction

The MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) mission used six planetary gravity assists in order to enable capture into orbit about Mercury. A key element of MESSENGER's successful trajectory was achieving the proper gravity assist from each planetary flyby. The criticality of the MESSENGER gravity assists levied tight accuracy requirements on the planetary-flyby targeting. Major errors could have precluded Mercury orbit insertion or required modifications to the trajectory that increased mission complexity, cost, and risk by requiring additional Mercury flybys and extending mission duration. Throughout the mission, MESSENGER modified its strategy for achieving accurate planetary flybys. By using solar sailing, the MESSENGER team was able to eliminate all of the flyby approach maneuvers without sacrificing flyby accuracy, thereby saving mission ΔV margin. The elimination of these approach maneuvers also markedly reduced mission risk, as these approach maneuvers were nominally planned during a time of heightened sensitivity to errors and precluded unique flyby science opportunities. The paradigm shift used by MESSENGER may be useful for other interplanetary missions, particularly if their trajectories require gravity assists in the inner solar system.     

High performance nuclear thermal propulsion system for near term exploration missions to 100 A.U. and beyond

A new compact ultra light nuclear reactor engine design termed MITEE (MIniature Reac Tor EnginE) is described. MITEE heats hydrogen propellant to 3000 K, achieving a specific impulse of 1000 seconds and a thrust-to-weight of 10. Total engine mass is 200 kg, including reactor, pump, auxiliaries and a 30% contingency. MITEE enables many types of new and unique missions to the outer solar system not possible with chemical engines. Examples include missions to 100 A.U. in less than 10 years, flybys of Pluto in 5 years, sample return from Pluto and the moons of the outer planets, unlimited ramjet flight in planetary atmospheres, etc. Much of the necessary technology for MITEE already exists as a result of previous nuclear rocket development programs. With some additional development, initial MITEE missions could begin in only 6 years.     

Inertially fixed pitch stabilization of satellites by solar radiation pressure

Utilization of solar radiation pressure to stabilize the pitch attitude of an unsymmetrical satellite along an inertially-fixed orientation is investigated. A controller employing two rotatable highly reflective control surfaces is proposed and a control strategy involving both nominal and feedback controls is synthesized. Accounting for the apparent annual motion of the Sun, the validity of the concept throughout the year is established through a stability analysis of the system. The influence of the Earth's shadow on the controller performance is also analyzed. The speed of response as well as the pointing accuracy capabilities of the system appear to be quite acceptable for long-life scientific missions.     

A complexity-based risk assessment of low-cost planetary missions: when is a mission too fast and too cheap?

Under constrained budgets and rigid schedules, NASA and industry have greatly increased their utilization of small satellites to conduct low-cost planetary investigations. Recent failed small planetary science spacecraft such as Mars Polar Lander (MPL) and Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO), and impaired missions such as Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) have fueled the ongoing debate on whether NASA's “Faster, Better, Cheaper” (FBC) approach is working. Several noteworthy failures of earth-orbiting missions have occurred as well including Lewis and the Wide-field Infrared Experiment (WIRE). While recent studies have observed that FBC has resulted in lower costs and shorter development times, these benefits may have been achieved at the expense of lowering probability of success. One question remaining to be answered is when is a mission “too fast and too cheap” that it is prone to failure? This paper assesses NASA FBC missions in terms of a complexity index measured against development time and spacecraft cost. A comparison of relative failure rates of recent planetary and earth-orbiting missions are presented, and conclusions regarding dependence on system complexity are drawn.     

Space radiation analysis: Radiation effects and particle interaction outside the Earth's magnetosphere using GRAS and GEANT4

In order to explore the Moon and Mars it is necessary to investigate the hazards due to the space environment and especially ionizing radiation. According to previous papers, much information has been presented in radiation analysis inside the Earth's magnetosphere, but much of this work was not directly relevant to the interplanetary medium. This work intends to explore the effect of radiation on humans inside structures such as the ISS and provide a detailed analysis of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and solar proton events (SPEs) using SPENVIS (Space Environment Effects and Information System) and CREME96 data files for particle flux outside the Earth's magnetosphere. The simulation was conducted using GRAS, a European Space Agency (ESA) software based on GEANT4. Dose and equivalent dose have been calculated as well as secondary particle effects and GCR energy spectrum. The calculated total dose effects and equivalent dose indicate the risk and effects that space radiation could have on the crew, these values are calculated using two different types of structures, the ISS and the TransHab modules. Final results indicate the amounts of radiation expected to be absorbed by the astronauts during long duration interplanetary flights; this denotes importance of radiation shielding and the use of proper materials to reduce the effects.     

Orbit design for future SpaceChip swarm missions in a planetary atmosphere

The effect of solar radiation pressure and atmospheric drag on the orbital dynamics of satellites-on-a-chip (SpaceChips) is exploited to design equatorial long-lived orbits about the oblate Earth. The orbit energy gain due to asymmetric solar radiation pressure, considering the Earth's shadow, is used to balance the energy loss due to atmospheric drag. Future missions for a swarm of SpaceChips are proposed, where a number of small devices are released from a conventional spacecraft to perform spatially distributed measurements of the conditions in the ionosphere and exosphere. It is shown that the orbit lifetime can be extended and indeed selected through solar radiation pressure and the end-of-life re-entry of the swarm can be ensured, by exploiting atmospheric drag.     

Deployment history and design considerations for space reactor power systems

The history of the deployment of nuclear reactors in Earth orbits is reviewed with emphases on lessons learned and the operation and safety experiences. The former Soviet Union's “BUK” power systems, with SiGe thermoelectric conversion and fast neutron energy spectrum reactors, powered a total of 31 Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellites (RORSATs) from 1970 to 1988 in 260 km orbit. Two of the former Soviet Union's TOPAZ reactors, with in-core thermionic conversion and epithermal neutron energy spectrum, powered two Cosmos missions launched in 1987 in ～800 km orbit. The US’ SNAP-10A system, with SiGe energy conversion and a thermal neutron energy spectrum reactor, was launched in 1965 in 1300 km orbit. The three reactor systems used liquid NaK-78 coolant, stainless steel structure and highly enriched uranium fuel (90–96 wt%) and operated at a reactor exit temperature of 833–973 K. The BUK reactors used U-Mo fuel rods, TOPAZ used UO₂ fuel rods and four ZrH moderator disks, and the SNAP-10A used moderated U-ZrH fuel rods. These low power space reactor systems were designed for short missions (～0.5 kW_e and ～1 year for SNAP-10A, <3.0 kW_e and <6 months for BUK, and ～5.5 kW_e and up to 1 year for TOPAZ). The deactivated BUK reactors at the end of mission, which varied in duration from a few hours to ～4.5 months, were boosted into ～800 km storage orbit with a decay life of more than 600 year. The ejection of the last 16 BUK reactor fuel cores caused significant contamination of Earth orbits with NaK droplets that varied in sizes from a few microns to 5 cm. Power systems to enhance or enable future interplanetary exploration, in-situ resources utilization on Mars and the Moon, and civilian missions in 1000–3000 km orbits would generate significantly more power of 10's to 100's kW_e for 5–10 years, or even longer. A number of design options to enhance the operation reliability and safety of these high power space reactor power systems are presented and discussed.     

Remnant magnetic fields of Mars and their interaction with the solar wind

This work presents a review of studies of the Martian magnetic fields during the early Soviet missions to Mars in 1971–1974, which never approached Mars by closer than 1000 km before the experiment with the Magnetometer/Electronic Reflectometer (MAG/ER) on board the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, which could descend to altitudes of 80–100 km. At present, the experiment with the magnetometer (MAG) onboard the American MAVEN spacecraft adds new data, but the map of distribution of remnant magnetic fields of Mars and the picture of their interaction with the solar wind are already formed and, at its core, obviously, will not be revised. Thus, it would be very instructive to consider the following in detail: (a) what is already known regarding the features and distribution of remnant magnetic fields on Mars; (b) how they control the interaction of solar wind with a weakly magnetized planet (Mars); and (c) what is its distinction from another nonmagnetized planet (Venus).     

Aeroshell design techniques for aerocapture entry vehicles

A major goal of NASA's In-Space Propulsion Program is to shorten trip times for scientific planetary missions. To meet this challenge arrival speeds will increase, requiring significant braking for orbit insertion, and thus increased deceleration propellant mass that may exceed launch lift capabilities. A technology called aerocapture has been developed to expand the mission potential of exploratory probes destined for planets with suitable atmospheres. Aerocapture inserts a probe into planetary orbit via a single pass through the atmosphere using the probe's aeroshell drag to reduce velocity. The benefit of an aerocapture maneuver is a large reduction in propellant mass that may result in smaller, less costly missions and reduced mission cruise times. The methodology used to design rigid aerocapture aeroshells will be presented with an emphasis on a new systems tool under development. Current methods for fast, efficient evaluations of structural systems for exploratory vehicles to planets and moons within our solar system have been under development within NASA having limited success. Many systems tools that have been attempted applied structural mass estimation techniques based on historical data and curve fitting techniques that are difficult and cumbersome to apply to new vehicle concepts and missions. The resulting vehicle aeroshell mass may be incorrectly estimated or have high margins included to account for uncertainty. This new tool will reduce the guesswork previously found in conceptual aeroshell mass estimations.     

Transforming solar system exploration: The origins of the Discovery Program, 1989–1993

The Discovery Program is a rarity in the history of NASA solar system exploration: a reform program that has survived and continued to be influential. This article examines its emergence between 1989 and 1993, largely as the result of the intervention of two people: Stamatios “Tom” Krimigis of the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), and Wesley Huntress of NASA, who was Division Director of Solar System Exploration 1990–92 and the Associate Administrator for Space Science 1992–98. Krimigis drew on his leadership experience in the space physics community and his knowledge of its Explorer program to propose that it was possible to create new missions to the inner solar system for a fraction of the existing costs. He continued to push that idea for the next two years, but it took the influence of Huntress at NASA Headquarters to push it on to the agenda. Huntress explicitly decided to use APL to force change on the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the planetary science community. He succeeded in moving the JPL Mars Pathfinder and APL Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) mission proposals forward as the opening missions for Discovery. But it took Krimigis's political skill and access to Sen. Barbara Mikulski in 1993 to get the NEAR into the NASA budget, thereby likely ensuring that Discovery would not become another one-mission program.     

Products from NASA's in-space propulsion technology program applicable to low-cost planetary missions

Since September 2001, NASA's In-Space Propulsion Technology (ISPT) program has been developing technologies for lowering the cost of planetary science missions. Recently completed is the high-temperature Advanced Material Bipropellant Rocket (AMBR) engine providing higher performance for lower cost. Two other cost saving technologies nearing completion are the NEXT ion thruster and the Aerocapture technology project. Under development are several technologies for low-cost sample return missions. These include a low-cost Hall-effect thruster (HIVHAC) which will be completed in 2011, light-weight propellant tanks, and a Multi-Mission Earth Entry Vehicle (MMEEV). This paper will discuss the status of the technology development, the cost savings or performance benefits, and applicability of these in-space propulsion technologies to NASA's future Discovery, and New Frontiers missions, as well as their relevance for sample return missions.     

All-propulsion design of the drag-free and attitude control of the European satellite GOCE

This paper concerns the drag-free and attitude control (DFAC) of the European Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer satellite (GOCE), during the science phase. GOCE aims to determine the Earth's gravity field with high accuracy and spatial resolution, through complementary space techniques such as gravity gradiometry and precise orbit determination. Both techniques rely on accurate attitude and drag-free control, especially in the gradiometer measurement bandwidth (5–100 mHz), where non-gravitational forces must be counteracted down to micronewton, and spacecraft attitude must track the local orbital reference frame with micro-radian accuracy. DFAC aims to enable the gravity gradiometer to operate so as to determine the Earth's gravity field especially in the so-called measurement bandwidth (5–100 mHz), making use of ion and micro-thruster actuators. The DFAC unit has been designed entirely on a simplified discrete-time model (Embedded Model) derived from the fine dynamics of the spacecraft and its environment; the relevant control algorithms are implemented and tuned around the Embedded Model, which is the core of the control unit. The DFAC has been tested against uncertainties in spacecraft and environment and its code has been the preliminary model for final code development. The DFAC assumes an all-propulsion command authority, partly abandoned by the actual GOCE control system because of electric micro-propulsion not being fully developed. Since all-propulsion authority is expected to be imperative for future scientific and observation missions, design and simulated results are believed to be of interest to the space community.