美国航天战略面临重大调整与转向

<正>在2010年2月1日公布的2011财年预算申请报告中,奥巴马政府全面调整了美国的航天发展战略,放弃了投资近百亿美元重返月球的星座计划,重新规划了低地球轨道以远的载人航天任务;从星     

美国四项载人航天探索计划

美国航宇局(NASA)探索办公室最近发表了一篇报告,提出了四项载入航天探索计划: 1.载人探索火星计划该计划包括3次远征火星探索行动,运货与运人分开进行,货运飞船先行,载有在火星着陆所必需的全部设备和返回地球用的推进剂,它沿着耗能最小,或者说是低速的轨道飞向火星。货运飞船到达火星后,便停留在轨道上,等待着载人航天器。载人航天器载有8名宇航员,到达火星后,便与货运飞船对接,其中4名宇航员乘着陆装置降落在火星     

21世纪国外航天医学工程发展方向

□□20世纪人类的载人航天活动主要是在近地轨道上进行,只有60年代末和70年代初美国在实施"阿波罗"计划时进行过几次载人登月.21世纪人类的载人航天活动除了继续在近地轨道上活动之外,还将登上月球、火星和太阳系的其他天体.     

目标火星——美国航宇局格伦研究中心的载人火星探测构想

登上月球是人类航天史上的一个重要里程碑,而下一个重量级的里程碑,应该是载人探测火星。随着人类的目光再一次投向深空,载人探测火星也随之提上日程。美国虽然放弃了"星座"计划,但仍计划2030年代中期执行载人火星任务。下面介绍美国航宇局格伦研究中心"指南针"团队提出的使用太阳能电推进-化学推进系统的载人火星探测概念。火星之旅有多道难关1969年人类就完成了载人登月,而载人火星任务却还遥遥无期,这一方面是美苏航天竞赛退潮的因素,更主要的     

被终止的美国小行星重定向任务

正2017年12月11日,美国总统特朗普正式签署"太空政策一号令",要求美国宇航局(NASA)重启登月计划,为载人登火星奠定基础,从而彻底改变了前任美国总统奥巴马以小行星为跳板进行载人登火星的载人深空发展战略。其实,早在2017年3月,特朗普政府就终止了奥巴马当政时NASA实施的"小行星重定向任务"(ARM)。那么,什么是"小行星重定向任务"呢?奥巴马当选总统后,于2010年4     

关于2030年前火星采样返回科学任务的展望

火星采样返回对于认知类地行星起源和生命宜居性、奠定未来载人登火基础具有重大意义，是下一代火星探测任务的重点目标。目前美、日、中均已公布火星采样返回任务的计划或相关设想。美国火星采样返回任务预计时间跨度逾10年，将与欧洲空间局合作研制发射样品返回着陆器、样品收集火星车和返回地球轨道器等，将毅力号火星车采集的样品带回地球。日本计划开展火卫一采样返回任务。分析国际采样返回任务方案，有助于中国火星任务的科学目标凝练和工程方案设计。      

美国载人航天商业化研究（中）

随着近地轨道实现大规模设施的建造部署,人类长期驻留等技术的日臻成熟,以及可重复使用技术的快速发展,商业化、产业化逐步具备条件,太空旅游、近地轨道商业运输和空间应用成为未来发展热点。以美国为主的航天国家积极推进载人航天商业化,近地轨道载人航天私营机构能力建设已初见成效,太空探索技术公司、轨道科学公司（现更名为轨道-阿连特技术系统公司,简称轨道-ATK公司）实现近地轨道货物运输常态化;波音公司、太空探索技术公司有望于2017年实现近地轨道商业乘员运输;XCOR宇航公司、维珍银河公司等多家商业公司即将提供太空旅游产品和服务。此外,美国提出商业空间站计划,并积极拓展月球以远的商业探索模式。载人航天领域的商业化是随着美国商业航天市场规模不断扩大、体系不断完善衍生出来的,也是美国载人航天降低成本、鼓励创新、提升竞争力的一个重要途径。     

美国载人航天商业化研究（下）

随着近地轨道实现大规模设施的建造部署,人类长期驻留等技术的日臻成熟,以及可重复使用技术的快速发展,商业化、产业化逐步具备条件,太空旅游、近地轨道商业运输和空间应用成为未来发展热点。以美国为主的航天国家积极推进载人航天商业化,近地轨道载人航天私营机构能力建设已初见成效,太空探索技术公司、轨道科学公司（现更名为轨道-阿连特技术系统公司,简称轨道-ATK公司）实现近地轨道货物运输常态化;波音公司、太空探索技术公司有望于2017年实现近地轨道商业乘员运输;XCOR宇航公司、维珍银河公司等多家商业公司即将提供太空旅游产品和服务。此外,美国提出商业空间站计划,并积极拓展月球以远的商业探索模式。载人航天领域的商业化是随着美国商业航天市场规模不断扩大、体系不断完善衍生出来的,也是美国载人航天降低成本、鼓励创新、提升竞争力的一个重要途径。     

美国大学及咨询机构对载人航天未来发展的研究

<正>从2004年美国政府"太空探索新构想"的提出到可具体实施的星座计划的出台,美国上下不断对航天飞机、"国际空间站"(ISS)的使用期限和重返月球、飞往火星战略目标等问题发表各自的见解。目前,"太空探索新构想"和星座计划进退维谷,奥巴马政府组织高层评审委员会进行研究,对诸多问题重新梳理和认识,以确认载人航天发展方向,提出解决方案,但该委员会提出的报告并未得出明确的结论,让奥巴马政府左右为难。本文整理了美国大学和咨询机构几种不同的观点,这些观点反映出美国载人航天决策的艰难。     

美国“小行星重定向任务”研究

正"小行星重定向任务"(ARM)是美国奥巴马政府规划的近期载人航天探索目标,由机器人阶段和载人飞行阶段两部分组成。其主要任务是无人航天器在飞越地-月空间的近地小行星上收集巨型石块,并改变该石块飞行方向进入远距离月球逆向轨道,然后由载人航天器与巨型石块交会并俘获,航天员对石块进行采样返回。"小行星重定向任务"是美国载人探索火星计划的过渡性项目,旨在为21世纪30年代载人探索火星演示验证相关技术。同时,美国政府实施该项目计划的意图还在于,弥补"国际空间站"(ISS)2024年退役后的载人飞     

2005年全球反恐特警队赛记

2005年3月30日到4月2日为期4天，在美国拉斯维加斯举行的全球特警挑战赛（Original World SWAT Challenge,OWSC）中，总计有18支队伍参赛。[编者按]     

Indirect search for Dark Matter with H.E.S.S.

Observations of the Galactic center region with the H.E.S.S. telescopes have established the existence of a steady, extended source of gamma-ray emission coinciding with the position of the super massive black hole Sgr A^*. This is a remarkable finding given the expected presence of dense self-annihilating Dark Matter in the Galactic center region. The self-annihilation process is giving rise to gamma-ray production through hadronization including the production of neutral pions which decay into gamma-rays but also through (loop-suppressed) annihilation into final states of almost mono-energetic photons. We study the observed gamma-ray signal (spectrum and shape) from the Galactic center in the context of Dark Matter annihilation and indicate the prospects for further indirect Dark Matter searches with H.E.S.S.     

The Comet Halley flyby I.R. sounder “I.K.S.”

An infrared sounder is being developed in France to observe in 1986 Comet Halley from the Soviet “VEGA” flyby probes. The instrument, called “I.K.S.”, has three measuring channels. Two of these channels will provide the spectrum of the comet emission in the spectral intervals 2.5–5.0 μ and 6–12 μ, at a constant resolution λ/Δλ = 50.The third channel analyzes the comet I.R. image at a spatial frequency of about 1 arc minute^?1; two I.R. colours are used in this channel: 7–10 μ and 10–14 μ. From the results expected, it is hoped that (1) most primary simple molecules emitted by the nucleus will be identified; (2) the chemical composition and perhaps crystalline structure of the dust grains and ices released by the comet will be derived; and (3) the diameter of the nucleus and its brightness temperatures will be measured.     

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule: behaviour of an artificial aquatic ecological system during spaceflight.

The C.E.B.A.S.-Minimodule, a closed aquatic ecosystem integrated into a middeck locker and consisting of a Zoological (animal tanks), a Botanical (plant bioreactor), a Microbial (bacteria filter) and an Electronic Component (data acquisition/control system) was flown on the STS-89 spaceshuttle mission in January 1998 for 9 days. Preflight the plant bioreactor was loaded with 53 g of Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail) and the animal tanks with 4 adult pregnant females of the fish, Xiphophorus helleri (sword-tails), 200 juveniles of the same species less than 1 week of age, 38 large and 30 juvenile Biomphalaria glabrata water snails. The filter compartment was filled with 200 g of lava grain inoculated with laboratory strains of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. A ground reference was undertaken with the same biological setup with a delay of 4 d. After an adaptation period of 5 d the system was closed and integrated into the spaceshuttle one day before launch. Video recordings of the animals were automatically taken for 10 minutes in 2-hour periods; the tapes were changed daily by the astronauts. The chemical and physical data for the aquatic system were within the expected range and were closely comparable in comparison to the ground reference. After 9 d under space conditions, the plant biomass increased to 117 g. The plants were all found in very good condition. All 4 adult female fish were retrieved in a good physiological condition. The juvenile fishes had a survival rate of about 33%. Almost 97% of the snails had survived and produced more than 250 neonates and 40 spawning packs. All samples were distributed according to a defined schedule and satisfied all scientific needs of the involved 12 principal investigators. This was the first successful spaceflight of an artificial aquatic ecosystem containing vertebrates, invertebrates, higher plants and microorganisms self-sustained by its inhabitants only. C.E.B.A.S. in a modified form and biological setup is a promising candidate for the early space station utilization as a first midterm experiment.     

Mechanisms underlying cellular radiosensitivity and R.B.E.: introductory remarks.

A general outline of the symposium titled "Mechanisms underlying cellular radiosensitivity and R.B.E." will be given in the introduction. The essential topics of molecular radiation biology are described with respect to the damage, repair and mutagenesis caused by high-LET irradiation to cellular DNA. The importance of clustered DNA lesions (locally multiply damaged sites) formed in vivo is discussed. This symposium is devoted to the mechanisms of the biological effects of radiation with high LET, especially with regard to the effects of heavy ions and neutrons which may cause possible risks in space flight, (e.g. carcinogenesis and mutagenesis). Detailed understanding of these risks, however, demands knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved in the biological effects of high-LET radiations. Thus, it was the organizers' idea to hold a symposium dealing with primary physical and chemical events caused in cellular deoxyribonucleoproteins by densely-ionizing radiations and to relate them to track structures and energy transfer processes. The mechanisms of DNA damage were regarded from different points of view including those considering DNA repair and mutagenesis. Problems associated with cell survival and radiation protection were discussed as well. Our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of high-LET radiation actions, however, is limited compared to what we know about low-LET radiation effects (e.g. from gamma-rays or X-rays). To emphasize this statement, I would like to summarize briefly the open questions in molecular radiation biology, what we know already about low-LET effects and what is lacking describing the effect of high-LET radiation.     

The "C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE": a self-sustaining closed aquatic ecosystem for spaceflight experimentation.

The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is the miniaturized space flight version of the Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.). It fits into a large middeck locker tray and is scheduled to be flown in the STS 85 and in the NEUROLAB missions. Its volume is about 9 liters and it consists of two animal tanks, a plant cultivator, and a bacteria filter in a monolithic design. An external sensor unit is connected to a data acquisition/control unit. The system integrates its own biological life support. The CO2 exhaled by the consumers (fishes, snails, microorganisms) is assimilated by water plants (Ceratophyllum demersum) which provide them with oxygen. The products of biomass degradation and excretion (mainly ammonia ions) are converted by bacteria into nitrite and nitrate. The latter is taken up by the plants as a nitrogen source together with other ions like phosphate. The plants convert light energy into chemical energy and their illumination is regulated via the oxygen concentration in the water by the control unit. In ground laboratory tests the system exhibited biological stability up to three month. The buffer capacity of the biological filter system is high enough to eliminate the degradation products of about one half of the dead animal biomass as shown in a "crash test". A test series using the laboratory model of the flight hardware demonstrated the biological stability and technical reliability with mission-identical loading and test duration. A comprehensive biological research program is established for the C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE in which five German and three U.S.-American universities as well as the Russian Academy of Sciences are involved.     

C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE: test results of an artificial (man-made) aquatic ecosystem.

The original Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is a long-term multi-generation research facility for experiments with aquatic animals and plants in a space station the development of which is surrounded by a large international scientific program. In addition, a miniaturized laboratory prototype, the C.E.B.A.S. MINI MODULE, with a total volume of about 10-12 liters for a Spacelab middeck locker was developed and a first version was tested successfully for two weeks with a population of fishes (Xiphophorus helleri) in the animal tank and a Ceratophyllum spec. in the illuminated higher plant growth chamber. The water recycling system consisted of a bacteria filter and a mechanical filter and the silastic tubing gas exchanger was separated by valves for the utilization in emergency cases only. Data were collected with the acquisition module of the original C.E.B.A.S. process control system. In addition, an optimized version was tested for 7 weeks with fishes and plants and thereafter with fish and with plants only for 2 and 1 weeks, resp.. The paper presents the relevant water parameters (e.g., pH, pressure, temperature, oxygen saturation, flow rate, ion concentrations) during the test period as well as morphological and physiological data of the enclosed animals and plants. On the basis of the given results the possible role of the C.E.B.A.S. system as a scientific tool in artificial ecosystem research and for the development of a combined animal-plant intensive aquaculture system and its utilization in bioregenerative life support is discussed.     

Aquatic modules for bioregenerative life support systems: developmental aspects based on the space flight results of the C.E.B.A.S. MIN-MODULE.

The Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (C.E.B.A.S.) is an artificial aquatic ecosystem which contains teleost fishes, water snails, ammonia oxidizing bacteria and edible non-gravitropic water plants. It serves as a model for aquatic food production modules which are not seriously affected by microgravity and other space conditions. Its space flight version, the so-called C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE was already successfully tested in the STS-89 and STS-90 (NEUROLAB) missions. It will be flown a third time in space with the STS-107 mission in January 2003. All results obtained so far in space indicate that the basic concept of the system is more than suitable to drive forward its development. The C.E.B.A.S. MINI-MODULE is located within a middeck locker with limited space for additional components. These technical limitations allow only some modifications which lead to a maximum experiment time span of 120 days which is not long enough for scientifically essential multi-generation-experiments. The first necessary step is the development of "harvesting devices" for the different organisms. In the limited space of the plant bioreactor a high biomass production leads to self-shadowing effects which results in an uncontrolled degradation and increased oxygen consumption by microorganisms which will endanger the fishes and snails. It was shown already that the latter reproduce excellently in space and that the reproductive functions of the fish species are not affected. Although the parent-offspring-cannibalism of the ovoviviparous fish species (Xiphophorus helleri) serves as a regulating factor in population dynamics an uncontrolled snail reproduction will also induce an increased oxygen consumption per se and a high ammonia concentration in the water. If harvesting locks can be handled by astronauts in, e. g., 4-week intervals their construction is not very difficult and basic technical solutions are already developed. The second problem is the feeding of the animals. Although C.E.B.A.S.-based aquaculture modules are designed to be closed food loop systems (edible herbivorous fish species and edible water plants) which are already verified on Earth this will not be possible in space without devices in which the animals are fed from a food storage. This has to be done at least once daily which would waste too much crew time when done by astronauts. So, the development of a reliable automated food dispenser has highest priority. Also in this case basic technical solutions are already elaborated. The paper gives a comprehensive overview of the proposed further C.E.B.A.S.-based development of longer-term duration aquatic food production modules.     

V.L.A. observations of flare build-up in coronal loops

Very Large Array (V.L.A.) measurements at 20 cm wavelength map emission from coronal loops with second-of-arc angular resolution at time intervals as short as 3.3 seconds. The total intensity of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution and structure of the hot plasma that is detected by satellite X-ray observations of coronal loops. The circular polarization of the 20 cm emission describes the evolution, strength and structure of the coronal magnetic field. Preburst heating and magnetic changes that precede burst emission on time scales of between 1 and 30 minutes are discussed. Simultaneous 20 cm and soft X-ray observations indicate an electron temperature $\text{T}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{2.5 × 10}{}^7\text{K}$ and electron density $\text{N}{}_{\mathrm{e}}\textcolor{red}{}\text{10}{}^{10}\text{cm}{}^{\mathrm{?3}}$ during preburst heating in a coronal loop that was also associated with twisting of the entire loop in space. We also discuss the successive triggering of bursts from adjacent coronal loops; highly polarized emission from the legs of loops with large intensity changes over a 32 MHz change in observing frequency; and apparent motions of hot plasma within coronal loops at velocities V > 2,000 kilometerspersecond.     

美国的战斧巡航导弹

3月19日,美英法三国开始对利比亚实行军事打击。在当天进行的空袭行动中,部署在地中海的美军和英军军舰与潜艇就向利比亚首都的黎波里郊区和东部城市米苏拉塔等地发射了110多枚战斧巡航导弹,袭击了20多处防空设施和民事目标。在随后的几天里,每天又都发射了一批这种导弹。截止到4月1日,美军共发射了221枚、英军共发射了7枚战斧巡航导弹。那么,战斧巡航导弹究竞