Space Debris at the United Nations

Rules for activities in outer space are agreed upon in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space of the United Nations. Several international treaties have been adopted in the 1970s, that is, at a time before space debris became a concern for the international community. In the years 1979–1988 numerous documents were prepared by the UN Secretariat on space debris, but no official discussions of the problem were initiated by states members of the COPUOS. First proposals for introducing the matter to the UN appeared around 1988, after important studies on the subject were published by states and leading intergovernmental organizations. Also the International Telecommunication Union became concerned about the proliferation of space debris in the geostationary orbit and adopted in 1993 a recommendation to restrict the generation of debris and to re-orbit satellites approaching the end of their active lives into disposal orbits beyond the belt populated by active satellites. In 1994, the UN started discussing scientific and technical aspects of space debris. In the following years, with the assistance of experts from prominent space agencies, it elaborated a Technical Report on space debris. Legal aspects of the problem have not yet begun being discussed because the necessary consensus among states members of the COPUOS has not yet been achieved. Very recently, the UN received first information on a wider subject, space traffic management.     

The role of the united nations in promoting international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 by the United Nations General Assembly in order to review and foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space and to consider legal issues arising from the exploration of outer space. Since its establishment, the Committee has addressed such issues as benefits from space activities, the definition and delimitation of outer space and the use of the geostationary orbit, implications of remote sensing, space sciences, space-based communications, navigation and meteorological systems, as well as use of nuclear power sources in outer space, space debris and spin-off benefits of space technology. At its session in 1996, a symposium on the ‘Utilization of micro- and small satellites for the expansion of low-cost space activities, taking into particular account the needs of developing countries’ was organized by COSPAR and IAF to complement discussions on this theme. It was noted at the symposium that the increasing number of small satellites, in particular the proposed introduction of multi-satellite ‘constellations’ at low orbits, would result in concentrations of satellite mass at certain regions of space around the Earth. Special provisions would be needed to minimize the probability of satellite breakups and collisions which might create more space debris and compromise the future of spaceflight.     

Assuring the sustainability of space activities

The growth of new space systems and the continued creation of orbital debris could in a few years make activities in Earth orbit unsustainable, so finding cost-effective ways to sustain space activities in Earth orbit is essential. Because outer space activities serve the needs of the military–intelligence, civil, and commercial communities, each with their own requirements, creating the necessary international agreements for reaching and maintaining a condition of sustainability will not be easy. This paper summarizes the primary issues for the international space community regarding our future ability to reap the benefit of space systems in Earth orbit. It explores several of the efforts to develop international agreements that would lead to or support the sustainability of space activities and examines the benefits and drawbacks of each approach. In particular, it reviews progress within the UN COPUOS, and examines the EU's proposal for an international Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. It also notes the need for states to establish or expand their own space legal infrastructure to conform to the UN treaties and guidelines for space activities.     

The IAA Cosmic Study on space traffic management

This is a slightly edited version of the IAA's recently published interdisciplinary and international study on managing the traffic—of all manifestations—in outer space. The study examines the requirements and prospects for managing space traffic in the future and provides a thorough analysis of the status of ways and means of doing so, as well as a comprehensive to-do list for organizations like COPUOS and ICAO.     

Trends in the global space arena – Impact on Africa and Africa's response

Since the establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) in 1959, many actions that affect the advancement of the space frontier have been taken, within and outside COPUOS, in the interest of the global community, but without much input from Africa. Yet a number of African countries have joined those with assets in space, albeit without the necessary infrastructure on the ground. These actions vary in scope, in importance and in participation; however, they affect us all. Examples include the legal instruments that are in operation today for the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, sustainability of the outer space environment and the Global Exploration Strategy– Framework for Coordination (GES–FC), conceived by 14 spacefaring nations; this laid out the details needed for an active global space exploration programme. This paper reflects on existing space-related regional cooperation arrangements at the inter-governmental level, including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC). Noting that, despite UN General Assembly endorsement of the need for developing countries to have access to the International Space Station (ISS), almost all in Africa have not, it asks what Africa might gain from such an experience. The paper concludes with an examination of where and why Africa needs to focus its immediate space-related efforts – on the ground here on Earth or in outer space?     

Will space run out of space? The orbital debris problem and its mitigation

An appraisal of current and future risks from space debris is presented with the aid of calculations carried out by the MASTER model. The efficacy of various technical options -- such as fuel venting, de-orbiting and use of a graveyard orbit -- for counteracting the problem is discussed. The article then focuses on governmental and international cooperative measures and looks at the recent work done by subcommittees of the UN COPUOS.     

Quo vadis COPUOS?

Since 1958, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has been an international forum working to build a body of space law by universal consensus, a method of working which has been essential to ensuring the enforce-ability of its decisions. This consensus has degenerated in recent years, slowing the progress of space law — which has now fallen dangerously behind the development of space technology. Some important recent decisions have had to be taken by majority voting rather than consensus, to overcome the paralysis of COPUOS. This, however, can only be a temporary solution. The author makes an urgent plea for a return to COPOUS and its methods.     

Preventing the weaponization of outer space: Is a Chinese-Russian-European common approach possible?

Preventing the weaponization of outer space is one of the most relevant issues of the current space law debate. In recent years discussions on this issue have significantly increased in international fora, such as the UN Conference on Disarmament and the COPUOS. While it has not been possible to arrive at an agreed solution on how to efficiently deal with the problem of possible weaponization of outer space so far, several valuable proposals have been put forward. China and Russia, on the one side, and the European Union, on the other, have taken the lead in this respect. While the former have submitted a proposal for a draft treaty on the demilitarization of outer space, known as the PPWT, the latter has issued a Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. Despite the differences between the two proposals, this paper proposes the development of a Chinese, Russian and European common approach aimed at preventing the weaponization of outer space. Although such a goal is undoubtedly challenging, some political and legal factors may enable such cooperation in the not-too-distant future.     

The growing ‘securitization’ of outer space

Discussions of space security tend to recurrently return to the vexed issue of the ‘militarization’ and ‘weaponization’ of outer space. Debate over whether or not a sustainable definition can be maintained between these two concepts has been a feature of both academic and policy discourses, and has been particularly contentious with regard to new proposals for arms control in outer space. Yet, this paper argues, the militarization/weaponization debate fails to capture to vagaries of contemporary space policy with regard to understandings of ‘security’, and is in this sense an insufficient way of approaching the subject of space security in the first instance. Instead it is now more accurate to say that outer space is becoming ever more ‘securitized’: that is, access to space is now commonly framed as crucial to the military, economic and environmental security of leading states and international organizations.     

微小碎片对航天器舷窗玻璃损伤状况的跟踪研究

空间微小碎片环境比较复杂,其来源包括人为产生的碎片及微流星体。空间微小碎片不仅速度较高,而且数量庞大。它们频繁撞击航天器外表面,包括舷窗部位,特别是对航天飞机舷窗已造成巨大危害,使长期服役的国际空间站舷窗玻璃存在安全隐患。文章简要介绍了空间微小碎片对航天飞机和空间站舷窗玻璃的损伤状况,以及NASA对此做出的改进措施,这些跟踪研究成果可为我国长寿命、高可靠航天器舷窗结构设计提供参考依据。     

The UN and space — 1989 review

In 1989, the two sub-committees of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) - the Scientific and Technical Sub-Committee and the Legal Sub-Committee - held their 26th and 28th sessions, respectively, at UN Headquarters in New York. They subsequently produced reports which were discussed at the 33rd session of COPUOS in New York from 5 to 15 June 1989. N. Jasentuliyana, Director of the Outer Space Affairs Division at the UN, discusses their work.     

Outer space,Geneva and the Conference on Disarmament: Future directions

Global dependence on the space sector is increasing rapidly. However, the growing challenges outer space poses to international security have not, as yet, been effectively addressed in the United Nations Conference on Disarmament (CD) or in other multilateral fora. This paper briefly reviews the current state of affairs of international security and outer space and explores the challenges the international community faces in building international agreements for improved space security and global stability. It examines some of the hurdles that are faced in tackling space security issues are and provides some thinking on ways to overcome them. The paper concludes that there is a potential role for the disarmament community and the CD in particular. As potential conflicts in outer space emerge, having invested bodies and communities such as the CD and a strong cadre of disarmament diplomats and NGOs to act as an informed hub on space and disarmament issues is essential.     

Recent and future activities of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs

This article discusses the development, and the current and future work, of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs. The Office is active both as a source of information, education and training on space and as a secretariat to COPUOS and its Subcommittees; it also performs a role in the monitoring and implementation of various space-related legal treaties. Presently—and as part of the drive to use space to improve life on Earth—the bulk of its work is guided by the Vienna Declaration produced at UNISPACE III.     

Dominance in space — a new means of exercising global power?

Sustained criticism of the strategy of nuclear deterrence and technological developments in the military uses of space suggest that nuclear weapons may soon be replaced by control of outer space as the USA and USSR's primary instrument of global power. This article traces the change in perceptions of nuclear weapons policy and assesses the potential of outer space as a means of control, and the plans of the two superpowers for its exploitation, especially in the military sphere. The consequences for Western Europe of a shift from nuclear to space-based weapons as the primary guarantor of national security are also discussed.     

The environmental dimension of space arms control

Current debates on the prevention of an arms race in outer space are dominated by the traditional perspective of international strategic balance. This article addresses the issue through the often-neglected lens of environmental protection, reviewing a number of environmental instruments as they relate to outer space. It argues that environmental protection, as a non-traditional element, is an instrumental impetus for arms control. The current regime leaves the door open for states to develop conventional orbital weapons and ground-based anti-satellite weapons (ASATs), which would have a significant adverse impact on the space environment. Thus the law of environmental protection is deficient in effectively protecting the space environment from pollution resulting from military activities. It is further argued that the space arms control regime should be strengthened for humanity's common interest in a sustainable space environment. Preferably an international treaty should be concluded to prohibit testing, deployment and use of space-based weapons and ASATs. These substantive obligations also conform to the requirements of safeguarding international peace and security, and the security interests of spacefaring countries.     

Iran's space programme: Riding high for peace and pride

Iran's efforts to develop space technology for civil and peaceful purposes began many years ago. Almost all its success in this connection is the result of indigenous potential in terms of human resources, available expertise and experience along with international cooperation and exchange of knowledge. There are considerable civilian entities involved in space-related development and production in Iran. This article describes the history and current status and capabilities of Iran's space programme and its aim to use space for peace and prosperity and to attain the position that it deserves in the global arena. Stepping into space using an indigenously developed system has provided Iran with a notable and unprecedented national pride. Only international cooperation, as already exists in the framework of COPUOS activities on the peaceful uses of outer space, can improve 21st century understanding of the space policy and visions of Iran for the world community. Iran's space programme is really no different from that of any other nation. It is committed to developing its assets in space both for peaceful purposes and for use as part of various multinational space projects. It should not be ignored that such achievements require a high degree of expertise, ability and comprehensive knowledge about the subject, while the attitudes and visions of leaders in each nation who also influence and contribute to the pace, progress and developmental objectives of any nation's space program should not be disregarded.     

Committee on the peaceful uses of outer space

The first artificial earth satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched on 14 October 1957 and proceeded to orbit the Earth blithely unconcerned with the political boundaries below. It was apparent that space activities had international implications. In the United Nations, the question of space activities was first raised in 1957 in the context of the debate on disarmament. In 1958, the ‘Question on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ was placed on the agenda of the General Assembly, which adopted a resolution establishing an Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).     

Consideration of space activities by the UN general assembly

The thirty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly affirmed ‘that complete and general disarmament warrants that outer space should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that it shall not become an arena for an arms race’.This text appears in the first of two important resolutions concerning outer space adopted by the General Assembly during its last session. Also in the first resolution, entitled ‘Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space’ (A/39/59 of 12 December 1984), the Assembly called upon all states, particularly those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the objective of the peaceful uses of outer space and to take immediate measures to prevent an arms race in outer space in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and promoting international cooperation and understanding.     

Ensuring equal access to the benefits of space technologies for all countries

There is a concern in the developing world that industrialized countries have not done all they might under Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty to make the benefits of space technology available to all countries; some are now seeking codification of rights and responsibilities in this sphere. This article discusses recent debate on the issues by COPUOS and its Legal Subcommittee on whether an additional legal framework is necessary to ensure a fairer distribution of benefits. G77 countries were strongly in favour of some form of technology and information transfer, while industrialized countries favoured the existing practice of developing international cooperative space projects. The author believes that a new set of principles will be formulated in the next few years and that organizations like Intelsat and Inmarsat can provide valuable models for ensuring access through cooperative programmes.     

Progress in basic space science education and research: The UNBSSI

This report describes recent progress in the UN Basic Space Science Initiative (UNBSSI), which aims to facilitate space science education and research, and attendant resources in developing countries. In addition to holding workshops across the developing world, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) successfully implemented the International Heliophysical Year (IHY) as a catalyst for improving understanding of the Sun and of solar-terrestrial physics. Building on this it is now preparing for the International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI). Achievements of the former are discussed, as are the goals and anticipated activities of the latter.