Special regions in Mars exploration: Problems and potential

“Special regions” on Mars are areas designated in the COSPAR planetary protection policy as areas that may support Earth microbes inadvertently introduced to Mars, or that may have a high probability of supporting indigenous martian life. Since absolutely nothing is known about martian life, the operational definition of a special region is a place that may allow the formation and maintenance of liquid water, on or under the surface of Mars. This paper will review the special-regions concept, the implications of recent recommendations on avoiding them, and the work of the Mars science community in providing an operational definition of those areas on Mars that are “non-special.”     

Progress in multilateral Earth observation cooperation: CEOS, IGOS and the ad hoc Group on Earth Observations

The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) coordinates international civil space-borne missions designed to observe and study planet Earth. With over 100 Earth observation satellites expected to be launched during the next 10 years, it is clear that collaborative opportunities have not been fully maximized. In 2003 CEOS has been focusing on articulating a more comprehensive satellite data utilization approach and in following up on its significant involvement in the World Summit on Sustainable Development. The CEOS Chair also serves as Co-Chair of the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) Partnership, which seeks to reduce observation gaps and unnecessary overlaps and to harmonize and integrate common interests of space-based and in situ systems. IGOS focused in 2003 on development of a number of themes, including Carbon Cycle, Water Cycle and GeoHazards. The IGOS Ocean Theme is now in its implementation phase. NOAA, while chairing CEOS and co-chairing IGOS, has also been actively involved in organizing and hosting a ministerial-level Earth Observation Summit with a follow-on Group on Earth Observations (GEO) charged with developing the framework for a comprehensive global Earth observation system(s). All these activities demonstrate the commitment to developing more coherent and sustained Earth observation strategies for the good of the planet.     

Towards a coherent remote sensing data policy

Access to space-based remote sensing data is critical for Earth science and the study of global change. This article summarizes a variety of US government Earth science data policies and problems. The authors examine current efforts to develop data policies for the next generation of US remote sensing programmes, noting likely problems based on past experiences. They argue that the goal of US Earth science data policy should be to provide the widest possible dissemination of data. Setting such a goal permits the development of a simple, coherent data policy that serves scientific, commercial and US government interests.     

The Global Earth Observation System of Systems: Science Serving Society

Over the next decade, a Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) will revolutionize our understanding of the Earth and how it works, producing societal benefits through more coordinated observations, better data management, increased data sharing and timely applications. The political momentum behind the establishment of GEOSS is described and examples of its benefits—drought prediction, disease monitoring, accuracy of weather and energy needs forecasting, disaster mitigation—are provided. While challenges exist, particularly in the area of making data accessible, steps are being taken to meet them, e.g. through the new GEO-Netcast concept. Interagency collaboration within countries is as important as international cooperation; the efforts of the US Group on Earth Observations in this regard are discussed. Maintaining the strong political support here and in all participating countries will be key to the success of GEOSS.     

An international remote sensing system: A possibility

There have been growing national capabilities in the observation of Earth from space and a corresponding increase in the global awareness of environmental problems. In response, within the past decade consensus has been reached with respect to the recommendations of Unispace-82, the Principles of Remote Sensing and Agenda 21 of the June 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED); the latter was convened ‘to lay the foundation for a global partnership between developing and more industrialized countries, based on mutual needs and common interests, to ensure the future of the planet’. Similarly, the framework for international cooperation in such programmes as the US-led Earth Observing system (EOS) and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) have been established. An international remote sensing system that is user-driven may be the next logical step.     

Planning for the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS)

The Group on Earth Observations was established to promote comprehensive, coordinated, and sustained Earth observations. Its mandate is to implement the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) in accord with the GEOSS 10-Year Implementation Plan and Reference Document. During the months over which the GEOSS Implementation Plan was developed, many issues surfaced and were addressed. This article discusses several of the more interesting or challenging of those issues—e.g. fitting in with existing organizations and securing stable funding—some of which have yet to be resolved fully as of this writing. Despite the relatively short period over which the Implementation Plan had to be developed, there is a good chance that the work undertaken will be influential for decades to come.     

The private solution to the space transportation crisis

Confused and short-sighted decisions dominated by political expediency have been made about US space policy in the past 30 years. Overly large and ambitious systems have been chosen, resulting in today's crisis in space transportation. The history of commercial aircraft development offers an alternative example of producing in a range of sizes and capabilities for a wide variety of users, and shows that the space transport industry could benefit from applying the decision-making processes used in private enterprise. The authors examine strategies for privatization of space transportation and conclude that policy support for the commercial launch industry must be continued. NASA must be reoriented towards its basic research function, and more government services should be bought from the private sector.     

A new paradigm for international cooperation in space exploration

In announcing a new Vision for the US space program, President George Bush committed the USA to “a long-term human and robotic program to explore the solar system”, via a return to the Moon, leading to exploration of Mars and other destinations. He also stated that other nations would be invited to join the vision. Many other nations have, or are developing, ‘exploration visions’ of their own. The potential for international cooperation therefore exists, both at the vision and program/project levels. This paper, based on Working Group discussions as part of an AIAA space cooperation workshop,¹ presents an approach for maximizing the return on all global investments in space exploration. It proposes an international coordination mechanism through which all these various national activities could be integrated into an inherently global enterprise for space exploration, a ‘virtual program of programs’. Within the context of the coordination, individual activities would utilize the full range of cooperative mechanisms for implementation. A significant benefit of this mode of conducting cooperation is that it would not require the negotiation of complex overarching international agreements as a precondition for initiating international activity.     

International coordination of space solar power related activities

Because the need for energy is global, and many energy networks are already interdependent, because no one country has sufficient technological capability or sufficient funds to provide a space solar powered solution on its own, and because any such solution will require international regulation, international coordination will be vital to any attempt to produce energy for Earth from space. This will be made easier by the fact that work on the subject has already been widely publicized and distributed and cooperative efforts have already been made. Various coordinating approaches are described and the need to forge partnerships between government, industry and academia — with greater involvement of all non-space groups concerned with energy — is emphasized. A “terracing approach” to the actual implementation of SPS is suggested and outlined.     

ESCAP space technology applications programme

Between 19–24 September 1994, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific - ESCAP, the largest of the UN regional bodies - held a series of meetings to inaugurate a new program in space technology applications. This program will have a strong Earth Observation component, and is designed to strengthen environmentally sound and sustainable development in the Asia Pacific region, in line with recommendations of Agenda 21 arising from the Rio Summit in 1992. Jeff Kingwell reports on two of the meetings, the ministerial conference and the space technology exhibition.     

Low cost planetary exploration: surrey lunar minisatellite and interplanetary platform missions

In order to meet the growing global requirement for affordable missions beyond Low Earth Orbit, two types of platform are under design at the Surrey Space Centre. The first platform is a derivative of Surrey's UoSAT-12 minisatellite, launched in April 1999 and operating successfully in-orbit. The minisatellite has been modified to accommodate a propulsion system capable of delivering up to 1700 m/s delta-V, enabling it to support a wide range of very low cost missions to LaGrange points, Near-Earth Objects, and the Moon. A mission to the Moon - dubbed “MoonShine” - is proposed as the first demonstration of the modified minisatellite beyond LEO. The second platform - Surrey's Interplanetary Platform - has been designed to support missions with delta-V requirements up to 3200 m/s, making it ideal for low cost missions to Mars and Venus, as well as Near Earth Objects (NEOs) and other interplanetary trajectories. Analysis has proved mission feasibility, identifying key challenges in both missions for developing cost-effective techniques for: spacecraft propulsion; navigation; autonomous operations; and a reliable safe mode strategy. To reduce mission risk, inherently failure resistant lunar and interplanetary trajectories are under study. In order to significantly reduce cost and increase reliability, both platforms can communicate with low-cost ground stations and exploit Surrey's experience in autonomous operations. The lunar minisatellite can provide up to 70 kg payload margin in lunar orbit for a total mission cost US$16–25 M. The interplanetary platform can deliver 20 kg of scientific payload to Mars or Venus orbit for a mission cost US$25–50 M. Together, the platforms will enable regular flight of payloads to the Moon and interplanetary space at unprecedented low cost. This paper outlines key systems engineering issues for the proposed Lunar Minisatellite and interplanetary Platform Missions, and describes the accommodation and performance offered to planetary payloads.     

Tracking and data relay satellite system: NASA's new spacecraft data acquisition system

The growth in NASA's ground network complexity and cost triggered a search for an alternative. Through a lease service contract, Western Union will provide to NASA 10 years of space communications services with a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS). A constellation of four operating satellites in geostationary orbit and a single ground terminal will provide complete tracking, telemetry and command service for all of NASA's Earth orbital satellites below an altitude of 12,000 km. The system is shared: two satellites will be dedicated to NASA service; a third will provide backup as a shared spare; the fourth satellite will be dedicated to Western Union's Advanced Westar commercial service. Western Union will operate the ground terminal and provide operational satellite control. NASA's Network Control Center will provide the focal point for scheduling user services and controlling the interface between TDRSS and the rest of the NASA communications network, project control centers and data processing facilities. TDRSS single access user spacecraft data systems should be designed for efficient time shared data relay support. Reimbursement policy and rate structure for non-NASA users are currently being developed.     

Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe

This paper summarizes the final report of the Earth Observation and Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) fixed-term project, set up to review national research on the subject and to make recommendations for its improvement within an EU-wide context. It identifies the major issues to have emerged from the areas of user perspectives, pricing policy, the impact of new technologies on data policy, archiving policy and legal regulation and suggests ways of dealing with them. These include orienting data policies towards specific uses rather than users themselves; presenting a common European voice over the trade and exchange of geo-information via new communication means; and establishing a European-scale think-tank able to provide independent assessments of the economic, legal and international relations questions affecting Earth observation.     

A systematic review of the Space technology transfer literature: Research synthesis and emerging gaps

In order to justify high expenditure during this period of financial crisis, Space Agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in Space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. The development of a technology transfer process from Space to Earth not only benefits the Aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. Technology transfer has been shown to stimulate innovation in business and commerce, support economic growth and provide a return on public investment in research and development (R&D). The aim of this paper is to systematically review the Space technology transfer literature and to suggest directions for future research. The range of research and studies in the literature on this topic requires a systematic review to summarize the results in an unbiased and balanced manner and to interpret these in a way that highlights the research gaps. This article presents an overview of the dominant thinking (explicit in selected articles from 1995 to present), indicating the problems of analysis, research gaps and a future research program.     

Assessing the legacy of the Space Shuttle

This article reviews the core legacies of the Space Shuttle program after 25 years and suggests that, while it was not an unadulterated success, on balance the Shuttle served a valuable role in the development of spaceflight and deserves an overall positive assessment in history. There are five core legacies that deserve discussion. First, the Space Shuttle has a reputation as a mistake resulting from a policy failure that should never have been pursued. Second, it has been criticized as a program that prohibited other paths for the US space program. Third, and more positively, the Space Shuttle provided more than two decades of significant human spaceflight capability and stretched the nature of what could be accomplished in Earth orbit much beyond where it had previously been. Fourth, it served as a relatively flexible platform for scientific activities. Finally, and perhaps most significantly since the US human spaceflight program has always been focused on national prestige, the Space Shuttle served well as a symbol of American technological verisimilitude.     

Super View-1-China's First Commercial Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation with a High Resolution of 0.5 m

Super View-1 satellite constellation(Super View-1 for short) is the first commercial remote sensing constellation with a resolution down to 0.5 m. It's an important part of the national spatial information infrastructure construction. It will play an important role for the global users providing remote sensing data, application solutions and remote sensing value-added services with its high-resolution and 24-hour observation capability. At present, 4 satellites of the constellation have been successfully launched and networked on orbit. The services cover surveying and mapping, land resource surveying, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, water conservancy, geological mining, environmental monitoring, defense, disaster reduction along with other traditional industries. There are also great potential applications in Mobile Internet, LBS, Smart city, insurance and other emerging professions. The successful operation of Super View-1 breaks the overseas monopoly for commercial high-resolution remote sensing satellite imagery in the China market. It's one of the major achievements in China space science and technology by actively exploring the development of commercial remote sensing markets, which is of strategic significance to the development of China remote sensing satellite business.     

Planetary Defense From Space: Part 2 (Simple) Asteroid Deflection Law

A system of two space bases housing missiles for an efficient Planetary Defense of the Earth from asteroids and comets was firstly proposed by this author in 2002. It was then shown that the five Lagrangian points of the Earth–Moon system lead naturally to only two unmistakable locations of these two space bases within the sphere of influence of the Earth. These locations are the two Lagrangian points L1 (in between the Earth and the Moon) and L3 (in the direction opposite to the Moon from the Earth). In fact, placing missiles based at L1 and L3 would enable the missiles to deflect the trajectory of incoming asteroids by hitting them orthogonally to their impact trajectory toward the Earth, thus maximizing the deflection at best. It was also shown that confocal conics are the only class of missile trajectories fulfilling this “best orthogonal deflection” requirement.The mathematical theory developed by the author in the years 2002–2004 was just the beginning of a more expanded research program about the Planetary Defense. In fact, while those papers developed the formal Keplerian theory of the Optimal Planetary Defense achievable from the Earth–Moon Lagrangian points L1 and L3, this paper is devoted to the proof of a simple “(small) asteroid deflection law” relating directly the following variables to each other:

(1) the speed of the arriving asteroid with respect to the Earth (known from the astrometric observations);

(2) the asteroid's size and density (also supposed to be known from astronomical observations of various types);

(3) the “security radius” of the Earth, that is, the minimal sphere around the Earth outside which we must force the asteroid to fly if we want to be safe on Earth. Typically, we assume the security radius to equal about 10,000 km from the Earth center, but this number might be changed by more refined analyses, especially in the case of “rubble pile” asteroids;

(4) the distance from the Earth of the two Lagrangian points L1 and L3 where the defense missiles are to be housed;

(5) the deflecting missile's data, namely its mass and especially its “extra-boost”, that is, the extra-energy by which the missile must hit the asteroid to achieve the requested minimal deflection outside the security radius around the Earth.

This discovery of the simple “asteroid deflection law” presented in this paper was possible because:

(1) In the vicinity of the Earth, the hyperbola of the arriving asteroid is nearly the same as its own asymptote, namely, the asteroid's hyperbola is very much like a straight line. We call this approximation the line/circle approximation. Although “rough” compared to the ordinary Keplerian theory, this approximation simplifies the mathematical problem to such an extent that two simple, final equations can be derived.

(2) The confocal missile trajectory, orthogonal to this straight line, ceases then to be an ellipse to become just a circle centered at the Earth. This fact also simplifies things greatly. Our results are thus to be regarded as a good engineering approximation, valid for a preliminary astronautical design of the missiles and bases at L1 and L3.

Still, many more sophisticated refinements would be needed for a complete Planetary Defense System:

(1) taking into account many perturbation forces of all kinds acting on both the asteroids and missiles shot from L1 and L3;

(2) adding more (non-optimal) trajectories of missiles shot from either the Lagrangian points L4 and L5 of the Earth–Moon system or from the surface of the Moon itself;

(3) encompassing the full range of missiles currently available to the USA (and possibly other countries) so as to really see “which missiles could divert which asteroids”, even just within the very simplified scheme proposed in this paper.

In summary: outlined for the first time in February 2002, our Confocal Planetary Defense concept is a simplified Keplerian Theory that already proved simple enough to catch the attention of scholars, popular writers, and representatives of the US Military. These developments would hopefully mark the beginning of a general mathematical vision for building an efficient Planetary Defense System in space and in the vicinity of the Earth, although not on the surface of the Earth itself!We must make a real progress beyond academic papers, Hollywood movies and secret military plans, before asteroids like 99942 Apophis get close enough to destroy us in 2029 or a little later.     

The Earth Observation Summit: heralding a new era for international cooperation

The world's first political summit on Earth observation was attended by senior policy makers and expert organizations from a range of scientific disciplines. Its aim was to improve global cooperation in Earth observation and increase its use as a decision-making tool for sustainable development and resource conservation. This article presents a brief survey of the progress made in Earth observation since its birth, along with the specific events driving the convening of the summit. The summit produced a declaration outlining four key areas requiring support, and an ad hoc group was established to produce a 10-year plan and drive implementation of policy.     

New technologies and data integration

The fourth workshop of the Earth Observation Data Policy and Europe (EOPOLE) project was held in Brussels, Belgium, 18–20 October 1999 at the offices of the European Commission DG Research, with Yves Reginster of Gere SA, Luxembourg, as guest speaker. The purpose of the workshop was to discuss the data policy issues raised by new technologies and by integrating Earth observation (EO) data with non-EO data. They included risks and reliability of output products, transfer of experience with new projects and intellectual property rights.