Interplanetary scintillation observations of the high-latitude solar wind

Until the ULYSSES spacecraft reached the polar regions of the solar wind, the only high-latitude measurements available were from indirect techniques. The most productive observations in regions of the solar wind between 5R and 200R have been the family of radio scattering techniques loosely referred to as Interplanetary Scintillation (IPS) (Coles, 1978). Useful observations can be obtained using a variety of radio sources, for example spacecraft beacons, planetary radar echoes and compact cosmic sources (quasars, active galactic nuclei, pulsars, galactic masers, etc.). However for measurement of the high-latitude solar wind cosmic sources provide the widest coverage and this review will be confined to such observations. IPS observations played a very important role in establishing that polar coronal holes (first observed in soft x-ray emission) were sources of fast solar wind streams which occasionally extend down to the equatorial region and are observed by spacecraft. Here I will review the IPS technique and show the variation of both the velocity and the turbulence level with latitude over the last solar cycle. I will also outline recent work and discuss comparisons that we hope to make between IPS and ULYSSES observations.     

Latitudinal variation of solar wind velocity

Single station solar wind velocity measurements using the Ooty Radio Telescope (ORT) in India (operating at 327 MHz) are reported for the period August 1992 to August 1993. Interplanetary scintillation (IPS) observations on a large number of compact radio sources covering a latitudinal range of ±80° were used to derive solar wind velocities using the method of fitting a power law model to the observed IPS spectra. The data shows a velocity versus heliographic latitude pattern which is similar to that reported by Rickett and Coles (1991) for the 1981–1982 period. However, the average of the measured equatorial velocities are higher, being about 470 km s^–1 compared to their value of 400 km s^–1. The distribution of electron density variations (N _e ) between 50R and 90R was also determined and it was found that N _e was about 30% less at the poles as compared to the equator.     

Interplanetary type III radio bursts observed simultaneously by ICE

We analyze two solar type III radio bursts that were observed simultaneously by the ICE and Ulysses spacecraft. Both bursts originated behind the solar limb as viewed from either spacecraft. At the time of these events, ICE was in the ecliptic plane at 1 AU and Ulysses was 35° south of the ecliptic plane at 4 AU. For one event on 931117, the ratios of the peak flux densities measured at each spacecraft, at each observing frequency, were consistent with the most probable source locations relative to ICE and Ulysses. The second event on 931004 was a complex burst consisting of two distinct components at high frequencies. At low frequencies, the intensity of the first component decreased rapidly at each spacecraft. The second component, however, dominated the low frequency emission observed at Ulysses but not at ICE. These differences in the observed radiation must be related to the different viewing geometries of the two spacecraft. The measured onset times as a function of observing frequency were consistent with a constant exciter speed through the interplanetary medium and suggest that there are significant propagation delays, especially for the radiation propagating within the ecliptic plane.     

Radio occultation studies with Solar Corona Sounders

Solar Corona Sounders (SCS), a mission designed to utilize the radio occultation technique for investigations of the inner heliosphere, was submitted to ESA in response to a call for new mission concepts. The SCS platforms are two small multifrequency transmitters placed at the anti-Earth position (superior solar conjunction) for continuous radio sounding of the solar corona. Appropriately specifying certain orbital elements for the heliocentric trajectories of the spacecraft, their radially-aligned positions as seen from Earth appear to circle the solar disk over the course of a year. The two radio sources would be most effectively positioned at apparent solar distances inside and outside the nominal solar wind critical point, respectively, e.g., at 3 R and 10 R. Radio parameters to be measured using the linearly polarized, coherent dual-frequency links to ground include the group time delay, signal amplitude, the phase (Doppler) shift, linewidth, and Faraday rotation. The link frequencies for coronal sounding observations this close to the Sun could be the interplanetary standards at S-band (2.3 GHz) and X-band (8.4 GHz). These measurements are used to derive both mean values and fluctuation spectra of such coronal parameters as the electron density, the solar wind velocity, and the magnetic field. The geometry afforded by the two radio ray paths from the SCS transmitters would provide unprecedented observations of the radial evolution of dynamic coronal events such as coronal mass ejections.     

Starburst galaxies

Bursts of massive star formation can temporarily dominate the luminosity of galaxies spanning a wide range of morphological types. This review is concerned primarily with such events in the central 1 kpc region of spiral galaxies which result from bar driven inflows of gas triggered by interactions or mergers. Most of the stellar radiant luminosity of such bursts is absorbed by dust and re-emitted in the far-infrared and is accompanied by radio and X-ray emission from supernova remnants which can also act collectively to drive galaxy scale outflows. Both evolutionary stellar models and estimates of the gas depletion times are consistent with typical burst durations of 10^7–8 yr. Spatially-resolved studies of nearby starburst galaxies reveal that the activity is distributed over many individual star forming complexes within rings and other structures organized by interactions between bars and the disc over a range of scales. More distant and extreme examples associated with mergers of massive spirals have luminosities > 10¹³ L and molecular gas masses > 10¹⁰ M implying star formation rates > 1000 M yr^–1 which can only be sustained for 10⁷ yr. In the most luminous merging systems, however, the relative importance of starburst and AGN activity and their possible evolutionary connection is still a hotly debated issue. Also controversial are suggestions that starbursts in addition to a black hole are required to account for the properties of AGNs or that starbursts alone may be sufficient under certain conditions. In a wider context, starbursts must clearly have played an important role in galaxy formation and evolution at earlier times. Recent detections of high redshift galaxies show that star formation was underway at z 4 but do not support a continuing increase of the strong evolution in the co-moving star formation density seen out to z l. Primeval starburst pre-cursors of spheroidal systems also remain elusive. The most distant candidates are radio galaxies and quasars at z = 4–5 and a possible population of objects responsible for an isotropic sub-mm wave background tentatively claimed to have been detected by the COBE satellite.     

The Electric Antennas for the STEREO/WAVES Experiment

The STEREO/WAVES experiment is designed to measure the electric component of radio emission from interplanetary radio bursts and in situ plasma waves and fluctuations in the solar wind. Interplanetary radio bursts are generated from electron beams at interplanetary shocks and solar flares and are observed from near the Sun to 1 AU, corresponding to frequencies of approximately 16 MHz to 10 kHz. In situ plasma waves occur in a range of wavelengths larger than the Debye length in the solar wind plasma λ _D ≈10 m and appear Doppler-shifted into the frequency regime down to a fraction of a Hertz. These phenomena are measured by STEREO/WAVES with a set of three orthogonal electric monopole antennas. This paper describes the electrical and mechanical design of the antenna system and discusses efforts to model the antenna pattern and response and methods for in-flight calibration.     

The three-dimensional extent of a high speed solar wind stream

A primary goal of the Ulysses mission is to study the 3-dimensional structures making up the interplanetary medium, and example of which is the high speed solar wind stream observedin situ by Ulysses beginning in July 1992. In order to study the longitudinal extent of this stream as a function of Ulysses' increasing heliographic latitude, a second point of reference is required to separate spatial and temporal variations. Such a reference point is provided at Jupiter by a class of Jovian radio bursts, whose occurrence rate varies in a predictable way with solar wind speed. Using thein situ and remote observations from Ulysses, the extent of the high speed stream at 5 AU is mapped and compared to the associated coronal hole boundary on the Sun.     

Models of coronal hole flows

Models of plasma flow in a coronal hole fall naturally into four classes. These are: (i) radial flow on a streamline along which the divergence is assumed to vary differently than as the square of the radial distance from the Sun; (ii) global flow along streamlines determined in some independent manner; (iii) empirical models originating in, or based strongly on observation; (iv) dynamic models using magnetic and plasma boundary conditions low in the corona to find both the geometry of streamlines and the flow field.To date, models both of ideal coronal holes and of specific observed coronal holes indicate that flow velocities above 100 km s⁺¹, and temperatures of perhaps 2 × 10⁶K are possible at 2R heliocentric distance, where densities of 2 × 10⁵ cm⁺³ have been reported. These velocities are at, or just above the sound speed, although still sub-Alfvénic. There is also general agreement among models of large polar holes that conversion of mechanical wave energy flux into solar wind kinetic energy is occurring in the 2R to 5R range, perhaps occurs even further outwards, and that the magnitude and extent of this energy deposition depends on the size and on the geometrical divergence of the hole.However, each model exhibits distinct weaknesses counteracted only by the complimentary nature of the various types of models. Models in class (i) are simply not global representations, but are tractable when dealing with complex forms of the energy equation or with several ion species. Class (ii) models lack any geometrical information beyond the ad hoc assumption of known streamline geometry, but have the same advantages as those in class (i). Class (iii) models cannot determine streamline geometry within a hole and do not extend further from the Sun than the available data — although they place important constraints on models in the other classes. Class (iv) models are limited to simple forms of the energy equation and/or to quasi-radial flow, but are the only models producing self-consistent streamline geometries through inclusion of transverse magnetic stresses in the momentum equation.Most limitations in coronal hole flow models can be eliminated by using known numerical techniques to combine models in classes (i), (ii), and (iv). This would allow detailed models of coronal holes and corresponding interplanetary conditions to be developed for specific time periods, at the cost of flexibility and possibly also general conceptual understanding. Nevertheless, the concept of a coronal hole is now reasonably well established, and acceptable modelling approaches are rapidly filling the literature. It can be anticipated that the evolution of these models, together with present and future observations, will bring us much nearer to understanding coronal energetics and dynamics.Proceedings of the Symposium on Solar Terrestrial Physics held in Innsbruck, May–June 1978.     

The synthesis of helium and CNO isotopes in massive stars

We present helium and CNO isotopic yields for massive mass-losing stars in the initial mass range 15M M _i 50M . We investigate their dependence on assumptions about mass loss rates, internal mixing processes, and metallicity, and specify the contributions from stellar winds and from supernova ejecta.     

Probing the solar wind acceleration region using spectroscopic techniques

Measurements of the intensities and profiles of UV and EUV spectral lines can provide a powerful tool for probing the physical conditions in the solar corona out to 8 R and beyond. We discuss here how measurements of spectral line radiation in conjunction with measurements of the white light K-corona can provide information on electron, proton and ion temperatures and velocity distribution functions; densities; chemical abundances and mass flow velocities. Because of the fundamental importance of such information, we provide a comprehensive review of the formation of coronal resonance line radiation, with particular emphasis on the H i L line, and discuss observational considerations such as requirements for rejection of stray light and effects of emission from the geocorona and interplanetary dust. Finally, we summarize some results of coronal H i L and white light observations acquired on sounding rocket flights.Paper presented at the IX-th Lindau Workshop The Source Region of the Solar Wind.     

CCD spectroscopy of the W Serpentis binaries KX And and RX Cas

Initial results are presented from a study of H profiles in the two interacting binaries KX And and RX Cas of W Serpentis type. The used CCD spectra with a resolution of 0.13Å/px were obtained with the 2.2m telescope and the Coudé spectrograph at the German-Spanish Astronomical Center at Calar Alto/Spain.KX And. This star is probably a non-eclipsing member of the W Serpentis type interactive binaries and has a period of P = 38.908 days. Our seven spectra of KX And were obtained at phase 0.54 – 0.75. The P Cyg profiles of the H line during our observations indicate an expanding shell. The asymetry becomes blue-sided at phase 0.67 and increases thereafter. This points toward a strong outflow of matter in the vicinity of the L3 point.RX Cas. According to the model of Andersen et al. (1988) the primary is a mid-B type star with M = 5.8M and R = 2.5R . The star is completely obscured by a geometrically and optically thick disk, which is supplied by mass transfer from the other component. The secondary is a K1 giant with M = 1.8M and R = 23.5R and fills out his critical Roche lobe. Radiative and geometrical properties of the disk are variable and its structure is probably not homogenous.Five spectra of RX Cas were obtained during the primary eclipse (phase 0.95 – 0.19). The observed double-peak emission is seen only after the eclipse with a separation of 250 km/s peak-to-peak, while during the eclipse an asymetric line profile can be observed with a red-shifted emission always presented. Also, a central emission at = 0.94 should be noticed, probably originating in the vicinity of L1.The observations of both systems indicate that we are dealing with strongly interacting binaries. Further observations are planned for better covering of phase.Visiting Astronomer, German-Spanish Astronomical Center, Calar Alto, operated by the Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie Heidelberg jointly with the Spanish National Commision for Astronomy.     

Non-relativistic solar electrons

This review summarizes both the direct spacecraft observations of non-relativistic solar electrons, and observations of the X-ray and radio emission generated by these particles at the Sun and in the interplanetary medium. These observations bear on three physical processes basic to energetic particle phenomena: (1) the acceleration of particles in tenuous plasmas; (2) the propagation of energetic charged particles in a disordered magnetic field, and (3) the interaction of energetic charged particles with tenuous plasmas to produce electromagnetic radiation. Because these electrons are frequently accelerated and emitted by the Sun, mostly in small and relatively simple flares, it is possible to define a detailed physical picture of these processes.In many small solar flares non-relativistic electrons accelerated during flash phase constitute the bulk of the total flare energy. Thus the basic flare mechanism in these flares essentially converts the available flare energy into fast electrons. Non-relativistic electrons exhibit a wide variety of propagation modes in the interplanetary medium, ranging from diffusive to essentially scatter-free. This variability in the propagation may be explained in terms of the distribution of interplanetary magnetic field fluctuations. Type III solar radio burst emission is generated by these electrons as they travel out to 1 AU and beyond. Recent in situ observations of these electrons at 1 AU, accompanied by simultaneous observations of the low frequency radio emission generated by them at 1 AU provide quantitative information on the plasma processes involved in the generation of type III bursts.     

Exploration of the solar corona by high resolution solar decametric observations

In this review, current state of knowledge of high resolution observations at decameter wavelengths of the quiet Sun, the slowly varying component (SVC), type I to V bursts and noise storms is summarized. These observations have been interpreted to yield important physical parameters of the solar corona and the dynamical processes around 2R from the photosphere where transition from closed to open field lines takes places and the solar wind builds up. The decametric noise bursts have been classified into (i) BF type bursts which show variation of intensity with frequency and time and (ii) decametric type III bursts. The angular sizes of noise storm sources taking into account refraction and scattering effects are discussed. An attempt has been made to give phenomenology of all the known varieties of decametric bursts in this review. Available polarization information of decametric continuum and bursts has been summarized. Recent simultaneous satellite and ground-based observations of decametric solar bursts show that their intensities are deeply modulated by scintillations in the Earth's ionosphere. Salient features of various models and theories of the metric and decametric noise storms proposed so far are examined and a more satisfactory model is suggested which explains the BF type bursts as well as conventional noise storm bursts at decametric wavelengths invoking induced scattering process for 1 t conversion. Some suggestions for further solar decametric studies from the ground-based and satellite-borne experiments have been made.     

Fields and plasmas in the outer solar system

The most significant information about fields and plasmas in the outer solar system, based on observations by Pioneer 10 and 11 investigations, is reviewed. The characteristic evolution of solar wind streams beyond 1 AU has been observed. The region within which the velocity increases continuously near 1 AU is replaced at larger distances by a thick interaction region with abrupt jumps in the solar wind speed at the leading and trailing edges. These abrupt increases, accompanied by corresponding jumps in the field magnitude and in the solar wind density and temperature, consist typically of a forward and a reverse shock. The existence of two distinct corotating regions, separated by sharp boundaries, is a characteristic feature of the interplanetary medium in the outer solar system. Within the interaction regions, compression effects are dominant and the field strength, plasma density, plasma temperature and the level of fluctuations are enhanced. Within the intervening quiet regions, rarefaction effects dominate and the field magnitude, solar wind density and fluctuation level are very low. These changes in the structure of interplanetary space have significant consequences for the many energetic particles propagating through the medium. The interaction regions control the access to the inner solar system of relativistic electrons from Jupiter's magnetosphere. The interaction regions and shocks appear to be associated with an acceleration of solar protons to MeV energies. Flare-generated shocks are observed to be propagating through the outer solar system with constant speed, implying that the previously recognized deceleration of flare shocks takes place principally near the Sun. Radial gradients in the solar wind and interplanetary field parameters have been determined. The solar wind speed is nearly constant between 1 and 5 AU with only a slight deceleration of 30 km s⁺¹ on the average. The proton flux follows an r ⁺² dependence reasonably well, however, the proton density shows a larger departure from this dependence. The proton temperature decreases steadily from 1 to 5 AU and the solar wind protons are slightly hotter than anticipated for an adiabatic expansion. The radial component of the interplanetary field falls off like r ⁺² and, on the average, the magnitude and spiral angle also agree reasonably well with theory. However, there is evidence, principally within quiet regions, of a significant departure of the azimuthal field component and the field magnitude from simple theoretical models. Pioneer 11 has obtained information up to heliographic latitudes of 16°. Observations of the interplanetary sector structure show that the polarity of the field becomes gradually more positive, corresponding to outward-directed fields at the Sun, and at the highest latitudes the sector structure disappears. These results confirm a prior suspicion that magnetic sectors are associated with an interplanetary current sheet surrounding the Sun which is inclined slightly to the solar equator.Proceedings of the Symposium on Solar Terrestrial Physics held in Innsbruck, May–June 1978.     

The Strength and Structure of the Coronal Magnetic Field

I discuss a method for determining the strength and spatial structure of the coronal magnetic field by observations of the Faraday rotation of a radio galaxy which is in conjunction with the Sun. Given a knowledge of the plasma density in the outer corona, and the magnetic field sector structure (both independently available), the strength of the coronal field can be determined, as well as the magnitude of spatial variations on scales of 1000 km to several solar radii. Such knowledge is crucial for testing computational models of the solar corona, which are prominently featured in this meeting. Results are presented from observations with the Very Large Array radio telescope of the radio galaxy 3C228 on August 16, 2003, when the line of sight to the source was at heliocentic distances of 7.1−6.2R _⊙. The observations are consistent with a coronal magnetic field which is proportional to the inverse square of the distance in the range 6 ≤ r ≤ 10R _⊙, and has a value of 39 mG at 6.2R _⊙. The Faraday rotation is uniform across the source, indicating an absence of strong plasma inhomogeneity on spatial scales up to 35,000 km.     

The local interstellar medium

The local interstellar medium can be probed in different ways: by analyzing low energy X-ray data in the range 0.1–0.4 keV, where the radiation is absorbed by the interstellar gas at column densities in excess of about 10²⁰ cm^-2 — and can therefore be regarded as local, by determining the absorption of stellar emission spectra from nearby stars along their lines of sight by intervening gas and by directin situ measurements of those components which penetrate the heliosphere sufficiently far, provided they can be distinguished from interplanetary material. The current status of these different investigations gives the following picture: the solar system is surrounded by a bubble of hot gas (density 0.005cm^-3, temperature 10⁶ K) out to several tens of parsecs. More locally it is embedded in a small warm cloud of density 0.07cm^-3, temperature 7000 K, column density 5 × 10¹⁷ cm^-2 — which gives a mass of about 0.1M . The transition to the heliosphere is governed by solar UV ionization, snowploughing of the interstellar gas by the outwardly expanding solar wind and the bow shock. The heliosphere is the region inside the solar wind terminal shock. Classically it would be regarded as not yet affected by (or aware of) the obstacle ahead. Practically, the existence of the interstellar medium makes itself felt even far inside the heliosphere by the penetration of neutral gas, dust, plasma waves, shock accelerated particles and cosmic rays. These are the local probes of the interstellar medium.     

Some problems of gamma-astronomy

The modern state of gamma-ray astronomy is reviewed, the paper being mainly devoted to the theoretical models that describe generation of gamma-ray emission under astrophysical conditions. Basic information on the processes of generation and absorption of gamma-rays, as well as the results of observations for various gamma-ray photon energies are reported.In the region of soft gamma-ray emission (i.e., for energies less than tens of MeV), where emission in gamma-ray lines dominates, we also discuss the nature of gamma-ray bursts, the origin of gamma-ray emission from the galactic centre, etc.Discrete sources and, in particular, the mysterious source Cyg X-3 are discussed in the region of very high (E > 10¹² eV) and ultra-high (E > 10¹⁵ eV) energy gamma-ray emission.A larger portion of the review is devoted to the analysis of cosmic-ray origin on the basis of the available gamma-ray data in the region from several tens of MeV to several GeV. The peculiarity of this energy range is, in particular, in the fact that the diffuse galactic emission was observed mainly there. We also discuss the problem of determination of the cosmic-ray density gradient from the gamma-ray data.The origin of high-latitude gamma-ray emission, the problem of galactic gamma-ray halo, etc., are discussed.The theoretical models explaining the nature of unidentified gamma-ray sources, as well as the results of measurements and theoretical estimations of a gamma-ray flux from SN1987A are analysed.List of Notations m electron mass, m = 9.108 × 10^–28 g, - M proton mass, M = 1.672 × 10^–24 g, - e electron charge, e = 4.803 × 10^–10 CGS - c velocity of light, c = 2.9979 × 10¹⁰ cm s^–1, - k Boltzmann constant, k = 1.380 × 10^–16 erg grad^–1, - e electron - p proton - gamma-ray photon - p antiproton - ^{0 0}-meson - -lepton - e ⁺ positron - r, , x radio-frequency, gamma-ray, and X-ray emission bands - E total energy of a particle - E _k kinetic energy - p particle momentum - spectral index for particles - spectral index for emission - n particle density (concentration) - H magnetic field strength - T temperature - _ph energy of low-energy photons - emission frequency - r _H Larmor radius of relativistic particles - k wave number - , z cylindric coordinates, in this case the coordinate (radius) along the galactic disk, z perpendicular to the galactic disk - M solar mass, M = 1.99 × 10³³ g.     

The August 1972 solar-terrestrial events: Solar wind plasma observations

Solar wind observations associated with the enhanced levels of solar activity in August 1972 are reviewed with an emphasis on recent analyses which more unambiguously characterize the changes in the interplanetary medium. Observations from Pioneer 9 at 0.8 AU, Pioneer 10 at 2.2 AU, and in the vicinity of Earth are reviewed and reinterpreted in the light of new data. Recent calculations of local shock velocities are reviewed and their implications discussed. These results indicate that contrary to previously published observations there is no significant deceleration of the interplanetary shocks between 0.8 AU and 2.2 AU.     

Ulysses-Voyager study of energetic particles associated with the intense solar activity of March/June 1991

The intense solar activity centered in March and June 1991 produced some of the largest interplanetary disturbances over the past several solar cycles. For these events the Ulysses EPAC energetic particle observations near 3 AU are compared with those of the Voyager 2 CRS experiment near 35 AU. At Voyager 2 there is a single long-lived event extending over a period of some 6 months while the Ulysses data shows the imprint of individual events as well as the formative stages of the longer lived structure. The average intensity gradient is –17% AU between the 2 spacecraft. At both locations the energy spectra can be represented by an exponential in momentum. The characteristic momentum for protons, (P_o)_H is on the average 4–5 times larger at 35 AU than at 3 AU and there is a significant change in the (P_o)_He/(P_o)_H ratio. However the average H to He ratio is in the range 20–25 for both sets of measurements.     

The emission mechanisms for solar radio bursts

Emission mechanisms for meter- solar radio bursts are reviewed with emphasis on fundamental plasma emission.The standard version of fundamental plasma emission is due to scattering of Langmuir waves into transverse waves by thermal ions. It may be treated semi-quantitatively by analogy with Thomson scattering provided induced scattering is unimportant. A physical interpretation of induced scattering is given and used to derive the transfer equation in a semi-quantitative way. Solutions of the transfer equation are presented and it is emphasized that standard fundamental emission with brightness temperatures 10⁹ K can be explained only under seemingly exceptional circumstances.Two alternative fundamental emission mechanisms are discussed: coalescence of Langmuir waves with low-frequency waves and direct conversion due to a density inhomogeneity. It is pointed out for the first time that the coalescence process (actually a related decay process) can lead to amplified transverse waves. The coalescence process saturates when the effective temperature T ^t of the transverse waves reaches the effective temperature T ^l of the Langmuir waves. This saturation occurs provided the energy density in the low-frequency waves exceeds a specific value which is about 10^-9 of the thermal energy density for emission from the corona at 100 MHz. It is suggested that direct emission has been dismissed as a possible alternative without adequate justification.Second harmonic plasma emission is discussed and compared with fundamental plasma emission. It also saturates at T ^t T ^l , and this saturation should occur in the corona roughly for T ^l 10¹⁵ K. If fundamental plasma emission is attributed to coalescence with low-frequency waves, then for T ^l 10¹⁵ K the brightness temperatures at the two harmonics should be equal and equal to T ^l . This offers a natural explanation for the approximate equality of the two brightness temperature often found in type II and type III bursts.Analytic treatments of gyro-synchrotron emission are reviewed. The application of the mechanism to moving type IV bursts is discussed in view of bursts with 10¹⁰ K at 43 MHz.