Towards the use of large eddy simulation in engineering

This paper reviews some important aspects of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) as applied to engineering flows. We first summarize the present status of modeling in incompressible, compressible and reacting multi-phase flows, with a view towards the overall formalism instead of the intrinsic details of different subgrid models. On the basis of the assumed requirements on future LES, expected to handle full-scale flows and reacting flows with detailed chemistry, we discuss some potentially interesting LES methods for the future. These methods are exclusively based on multi-scale modeling, in which simplified equations are solved within each LES cell, instead of semi-empirical modeling based on the resolved flow scales only. After that we outline a few flows studied by LES at the Swedish Defense Research Agency—FOI, which form the basis for the subsequent discussion of validation and verification, and quality management, being of increasing importance for practical engineering flows. Next we summarize some practical aspects of LES of engineering applications, many of which being crucial to the successful use of LES, and being of increasing importance for engineering flows. Finally, a view of the future use of LES in engineering is presented, which is based primarily on the evolutionary use of LES during the last decade in the fields of hydrodynamics and combustion.     

模型燃烧室紊流燃烧的大涡模拟

采用了两种不同的亚网格尺度燃烧模型对带 V型稳定器的模型燃烧室紊流化学反应流动进行了大涡模拟 ,用 k-ε方程亚网格尺度模型确定亚网格紊流粘性 ,为了考虑热辐射对燃烧室壁温和气流温度的影响 ,运用热流法辐射模型估算热辐射通量 ,用 SIMPLE算法和混合差分求解大涡模拟各守恒方程 ,通过对两种不同亚网格尺度燃烧模型数值模拟结果与实验值的比较表明 ,两种燃烧模型都与实验值较吻合 ,但 G方程小火焰模型要比亚网格 EBU燃烧模型符合得更好些      

两种亚网格燃烧模型的旋流扩散燃烧大涡模拟

用二阶矩亚网格（SOM—SGS）燃烧模型和文献中的涡旋破碎亚网格（EBU—SGS）燃烧模型，对甲烷一空气旋流扩散燃烧进行了大涡模拟，将二者得到的LES统计平均温度分布和实验结果以及用二阶矩燃烧模型的统观模拟（RANS—SOM）结果比较，表明LES—SOM和RANS—SOM的模拟结果都和实验符合较好，而LES—EBU的模拟结果和实验不符合，在不同区域内高估或者低估了燃烧温度。其原因是由于EBU模型不能有效地考虑有限反应动力学的作用。LES—SOM模拟的瞬态结果显示了旋流扩散火焰的湍流大涡结构不同于射流火焰的特点。     

过渡态带隔热涂层的燃气涡轮叶片热状态计算方法研究

过渡态条件下热端部件热状态计算在评估发动机性能、强度寿命及内部间隙等方面占有十分重要的地位。参考了俄罗斯关于过渡态涂层叶片的1种计算方法,但对其中的数学处理作了更广泛的集成和推广,使得该方法能更充分地考虑过渡态变化过程的复杂性以及换热边界条件的适时变化等问题;以该方法编制了带涂层热端部件的工程计算程序,将计算结果与国外数据进行了对比,吻合较好。     

预混燃烧大涡模拟和燃烧模型的检验

用代数二阶矩亚网格(ASOM-SGS)燃烧模型对文献中测量的钝体后方丙烷-空气预混燃烧进行了大涡模拟,模拟统计的时平均速度、速度脉动均方根值和温度分布与实验数据结果吻合很好,表明所采用的ASOM-SGS亚网格燃烧模型是合理的。模拟的瞬态结果显现了钝体后方湍流流动和火焰结构。将大涡模拟数据统计得到的反应率系数-浓度关联量的分布规律,与代数二阶矩RANS(ASOM-RANS)燃烧模型的模拟值进行对比,结果发现,大涡模拟统计值和ASOM-RANS模型的模拟值很接近,从而证明了湍流燃烧代数二阶矩RANS模型的合理性。     

The LES model's role in jet noise

Problem definition, near wall modeling and other factors, including grid structure along with its implications on filter definition, are suggested to be of potentially greater importance for practical jet simulations than the LES (large eddy simulation) model. This latter element in itself can be theoretically questionable. When moving to realistic engine conditions, it is noted that disentangling numerical influences from the LES model's appear difficult and negates the model value with its omission potentially being beneficial. Evidence cited suggests that if using an LES model for jets, choosing the numerically best conditioned or the one the code has or, for a dissipative solver, even LES model omission seems sensible. This view point precludes combustion modeling. Tensors of additional derivatives, used in non-linear LES models, when expanded, can yield potentially several hundred interesting derivatives. It is suggested that the MILES (monotone-integrated LES) and LES communities should move towards seeing where modified equation derivatives connect with derivatives that appear in more state of the art non-linear LES models. Then the best features could be combined to form mixed MILES–LES models or even mixed MILES–LES–RANS models. Combustion modeling also presents hybridization potential but in a different context. Most MILES-modified equation analysis focus on the spatial discretization and not the temporal. However, with some codes the spatial discretization terms are deliberately constructed to cancel temporal truncation error terms. Hence, the two things work in harmony and the temporal discretization can make a strong impact on resolved scales.     

基于火焰面模型的超声速燃烧混合LES/RANS模拟

为了明晰超燃冲压发动机燃烧室内部燃烧过程的细节,建立了超声速湍流燃烧稳态火焰面亚格子模型,并采用混合LES/RANS方法对氢燃料超燃冲压发动机进行算例验证.控制方程对流项用五阶精度WENO格式离散,时间方向采用二阶Runge-Kutta方法.研究表明:(1)冷流流场中燃料分布与大尺度结构分布相似,说明混合过程受大涡控制;(2)燃烧流场中涡的尺寸明显变大,且仅存在于火焰面上,另外温度分布和主要生成物分布与涡量云图基本相同,说明燃烧过程也由大涡控制;(3)时均计算结果与实验阴影基本符合,速度剖面和温度剖面与实验测量值定性一致,说明本文的数值模拟方法和燃烧模型可以较好地描述和预测超声速流动燃烧过程.     

突扩燃烧室低频燃烧不稳定形成机理分析

突扩燃烧室在一定的工作条件下会出现燃烧不稳定现象。采用实验和数值模拟的方法对突扩燃烧室形成低频燃烧不稳定的机理进行了研究。通过实验研究发现突扩燃烧室压强振动过程中纵向振型占主导地位,但其振动频率并不与声学频率一致。建立了适合分析燃烧不稳定的多步化学反应动力学与大涡模拟耦合的数值分析方法,对实验发动机开展了非稳态数值模拟,获得了低频燃烧不稳定形成演化的详细过程和流场结构。实验和数值计算表明突扩截面形成的旋涡脱落,以及旋涡在燃烧室内的运动过程中引起燃烧面积、局部当量比和热释放率的脉动是激发低频压强振动的主要原因。压强振动引起上游速度脉动,进而形成旋涡脱落。大尺度旋涡在燃烧室内的运动又会引起热释放率的大幅度脉动,反过来又会促进压强振动。振动频率是由压强波和旋涡运动特征时间共同决定的。     

Large-eddy simulation and linear acoustic modeling of entropy mode oscillations in a model combustor with coolant injection

Lean-burn combustor is particularly susceptible to combustion instability and the unsteady heat release is usually considered as the excitation of the self-maintained thermo-acoustic oscillations. The transverse coolant injection is widely used to reduce the temperature of burnt gas, but on the other hand, it will introduce temperature fluctuation inside the combustor. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the influence of the coolant injection on combustion instability, and evaluate its dynamic feature. In this paper, Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) of the self-excited pressure oscillations in a model combustor with coolant injection is carried out. The analysis of transient flow characteristics and the identification of the pressure modes confirm that one of the low frequency pressure oscillations is related to entropy fluctuations, which is known as rumble combustion instability. The LES results show that transient coolant injection is another excitation of temperature fluctuation other than unsteady combustion. The amplitude of the entropy mode oscillation increases with increasing coolant air mass whereas the change of its frequency is insignificant. According to the major feature of entropy wave oscillation caused by coolant injection, a compact coolant injection model is proposed and applied in the One Dimensional (1D) Acoustic Network Method (ANM). Key correlations used in the model match well with LES data in low frequency range. This means that the coolant injection model is a complex one reflecting the interaction of the fluctuating coolant mass, pressure and temperature. Finally, the combustion instability frequencies and modes predicted by acoustic network method are also in good agreement with LES results.     

同轴突扩燃烧室低频不稳定燃烧数值模拟

采用大涡模拟耦合预混燃烧方法,建立了液体冲压发动机不稳定燃烧计算模型。对模型发动机进行了不稳定燃烧数值研究,计算得到的发动机内压强振荡和火焰传播过程与文献中的实验数据吻合较好。结果分析表明,突扩构形发动机内大尺度的旋涡结构支配了燃烧室中的火焰传播过程,旋涡运动耦合非稳态的燃烧热释放是激发燃烧室低频压强振荡的重要原因。     

室火轰燃的大涡模拟

采用一套修正的适用于低马赫数浮力流的N-S方程组来描述火灾场,运用Smagorinsky亚格子模型的大涡模拟方法对室内池火的轰燃发展过程进行了数值模拟,把模拟与实验结果进行了对比和分析。结果表明,该方法能较好地预测轰燃。同时模拟结果显示火焰区向房间后部偏转稍大,近壁处温度预测的误差大一些,随着亚格子模型的不断完善和计算能力的提高,用该技术来预测轰燃现象会更加准确。     

Computation of unsteady turbomachinery flows: Part 1—Progress and challenges

There are numerous unsteady flow influences in turbomachinery. These can potentially make a substantial total impact on efficiency, and hence the environment and operating costs over the life of a gas turbine engine. These unsteadiness sources are reviewed. Also, the turbomachinery zones where unsteady modeling is mandatory for meaningful solutions is outlined. The various unsteady modeling hierarchies are reviewed. These range from linear harmonic to Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS). Unsteady reduced order modeling encompassing deterministic stresses and body forces are reviewed. Hierarchies are presented for different modeling lineages and fidelity levels. Mixed fidelity methods are proposed, where low and high fidelity treatments are combined. For example, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Simulations (URANS) being combined with body forces to provide appropriate system boundary conditions.A daunting array of modeling and numerical methods and strategies are found for the user to select. Each has their own theoretical limitations. Clearly a user must be aware of these. Reported performances of the different approaches are found to vary considerably between relatively similar applications. The reviewed work suggests that Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), as ever, is an activity that needs strong reviewing of processes, tools and overseeing of modeling practices. With regard to LES, grid densities used for typical complex geometry simulations currently appear to be too coarse. This reflects the lack of current computational performance and hence the need for reduced order models.     

Advanced Crew Escape Suit

Design of the S1032 Launch Entry Suit (LES) began following the Challenger loss and NASA's decision to incorporate a Shuttle crew escape system. The LES (see Figure 1) has successfully supported Shuttle missions since NASA's Return to Flight with STS-26 in September 1988. In 1990, engineers began developing the S1035 Advanced Crew Escape Suit (ACES) to serve as a replacement for the LES. The ACES was designed to be a simplified, lightweight, low-bulk pressure suit which aided self donning/doffing, provided improved comfort, and enhanced overall performance to reduce crew member stress and fatigue. Favorable crew member evaluations of a prototype led to full-scale development and qualification of the S1035 ACES between 1990 and 1992. Production of the S1035 ACES began in February 1993, with the first unit delivered to NASA in May 1994. The S1035 ACES first flew aboard STS-68 in August 1994 and will become the primary crew escape suit when the S1032 LES ends its service life in late 1995. The primary goal of the S1035 development program was to provide improved performance over that of the S1032 to minimize the stress and fatigue typically experienced by crew members. To achieve this, five fundamental design objectives were established, resulting in various material/configuration changes.     

模型确认热传导挑战问题求解的贝叶斯方法

为了进一步推动模型确认方法的发展并明确其具体实施步骤,以圣地亚国家实验室提出的模型确认热传导挑战问题为例,建立了模型确认的贝叶斯框架,并阐述模型确认的思想以及实现的一般过程.模型确认不仅是一个评定仿真模型准确度的过程,而且是一个通过确认结果提高模型预测精度的过程.首先介绍了贝叶斯及不确定性量化的基本理论,强调了模型修正...     

大涡模拟模型燃烧室燃烧性能计算

对带双级扩压器的模型燃烧室气液两相瞬态喷雾燃烧过程,在三维贴体坐标系下采用欧拉-拉格朗日两相大涡模拟方法进行数值研究,同时采用多维经验分析法预估燃烧性能.采用 k 方程亚网格尺度模型模拟亚网格湍流黏性;亚网格EBU(eddy-break-up)燃烧模型预估化学反应速率;多维经验分析法计算燃烧性能;并在非交错网格体系下气相采用SIMPLE(semi-implicit method for pressure-linked equations)算法对控制方程进行求解,液相采用随机离散模型,两相之间的耦合采用PSIC(particle-source-in-cell)算法.通过大涡模拟瞬态及时均计算结果表明:与粒子图像测速仪(PIV)测量的瞬态速度场、出口温度分布试验数据吻合,表明在三维贴体坐标系下采用欧拉-拉格朗日两相大涡模拟方法,数值模拟模型燃烧室两相喷雾燃烧流场,所采用的亚网格模型可以用于燃烧室气液两相喷雾燃烧流场的大涡模拟;燃烧性能计算结果与试验测量结果基本一致,说明所采用多维经验分析法可以用来数值模拟航空发动机燃烧室燃烧性能的计算,特别是污染物的预估,为设计低污染高性能航空发动机燃烧室提供有用的设计依据.      

大涡模拟模型环形燃烧室污染特性

在任意曲线坐标系下,采用大涡模拟模型环形燃烧室两相燃烧流场中污染物的生成.用亚网格涡破碎(EBU)燃烧模型估算化学反应速率;分别用NO亚网格动力学模型与CO亚网格模型来模拟NO和CO的生成;采用随机离散模型模拟气液两相湍流流动,两相之间耦合采用PSIC算法.计算结果与瞬态速度场、出口温度和污染物质量分数分布的实验数据比较吻合,表明大涡模拟方法和亚网格模型可以用来预估实际燃烧室两相喷雾燃烧流场和污染物生成过程.      

船舶柴油机比例模型实验的理论基础与技术挑战

采用相似比例模型实验进行新型船舶柴油机研发可以极大地节约研发时间、成本及能源。本文回顾了柴油机燃烧相似性理论的发展历程,总结了实现燃烧相似性的三种单值条件相似法则,重点阐述了喷雾混合气形成过程相似性理论与实验验证的最新研究成果,同时指出船舶柴油机相似比例模型实验亟待攻克的技术挑战。建立柴油机喷雾燃烧相似性理论体系有助于制定科学合理的相似比例模型实验规范,推动船舶柴油机研发实现快速发展。     

Navier–Stokes analysis methods for turbulent jet flows with application to aircraft exhaust nozzles

This article presents the current status of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods as applied to the simulation of turbulent jet flowfields issuing from aircraft engine exhaust nozzles. For many years, Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) methods have been used routinely to calculate such flows, including very complex nozzle configurations. RANS methods replace all turbulent fluid dynamic effects with a turbulence model. Such turbulence models have limitations for jets with significant three-dimensionality, compressibility, and high temperature streams. In contrast to the RANS approach, direct numerical simulation (DNS) methods calculate the entire turbulent energy spectrum by resolving all turbulent motion down to the Kolmogorov scale. Although this avoids the limitations associated with turbulence modeling, DNS methods will remain computationally impractical in the foreseeable future for all but the simplest configurations. Large-Eddy simulation (LES) methods, which directly calculate the large-scale turbulent structures and reserve modeling only for the smallest scales, have been pursued in recent years and may offer the best prospects for improving the fidelity of turbulent jet flow simulations. A related approach is the group of hybrid RANS/LES methods, where RANS is used to model the small-scale turbulence in wall boundary layers and LES is utilized in regions dominated by the large-scale jet mixing. The advantages, limitations, and applicability of each approach are discussed and recommendations for further research are presented.     

Progress and future prospects of CFD in aerospace—Wind tunnel and beyond

A historical perspective of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in aerospace in the last 30 years is firstly given. It is shown that there still remain a number of problems that are geometrically simple but difficult to simulate even after many simulations were conducted over complex body configurations. The fact indicates that CFD research is now in the “specific phase” and requires some innovation.The innovation includes “evolutionary effort” and “revolutionary effort”. As an example of evolutionary effort, large eddy simulations/ Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulations (LES/RANS) hybrid method and its application examples are presented. A shift from RANS to LES/RANS hybrid method occurs not because of the advancement of computers but because of our recognition that separated flows are inherently unsteady and successful simulations require LES-like computations.Comment is given that there may be other types of research necessary to make CFD a real useful tool for a design in addition to simply showing CFD capability for complex body configurations. As one of the examples, construction of a CFD database is presented. Another issue is to make CFD infrastructures so that people outside CFD community may use CFD as a tool to formulate or refine their ideas.To find out revolutionary effort, the message given by Prof. Dean Chapman in 1977 is referred. Observation of current CFD research reveals that evaluation methods of “scale effect” that were believed to be the most important benefit of CFD have not yet been established. Such establishment is the key for the revolution of CFD and researchers need to focus their effort on the development of technologies to evaluate scale effect. Only with such new CFD technologies can “conceptual design with CFD” become feasible.     

新型半发散结构的冷却特性参数研究

根据席壁冷却的传热模型, 采用数值迭代法, 对席壁的冷却特性参数即壁面热效率和壁面温比进行了计算。结果表明, 席壁的冷却特性参数主要受壁面多孔度和冷却剂热容数的影响, 边界换热条件的影响不显着。与已有的实验数据相比较, 计算结果与之基本符合。